Following the death of Qutubuddin Aibak, a dispute erupted among the nobles regarding succession. While the nobles at Lahore accepted Aibak’s son, Aram Shah, as the next ruler, the Delhi nobility opposed this move and instead invited Iltutmish, Aibak’s son-in-law and a prominent governor, to assume power. Aram Shah attempted to assert his authority by marching toward Delhi but was decisively defeated and possibly killed by Iltutmish after a short reign of just eight months.
There is some confusion regarding the exact pronunciation and rendering of Iltutmish’s name. While Turkish historian Hekmat Bayur referred to him as Ishtemish in 1950, Persian historians and poets in India popularized the name Iltutmish (Shams ud-Din Iltutmish), which has since become widely accepted in Indian historiography.
Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish, a name etched in the annals of medieval Indian history, was arguably the true consolidator of the Delhi Sultanate. While Qutbuddin Aibak laid its foundation, it was Iltutmish who gave it structural integrity, administrative strength, and political legitimacy. His reign, lasting from 1211 to 1236 CE, was marked by a series of military challenges, administrative reforms, socio-political turmoil, and an unrelenting drive to centralize power in the newly established Sultanate.
Following Aibak’s sudden death in 1210 CE, the succession crisis immediately tested the unity and cohesion of the Turkish elite in India. The nobles at Lahore chose Aibak’s son Aram Shah as his successor. However, Aram lacked both capability and legitimacy. The Delhi nobles opposed his selection and extended their support to Iltutmish, then the administrator (iqtadar) of Badaun and son-in-law of Aibak. Iltutmish marched towards Delhi, defeated Aram Shah in a short confrontation, and assumed the throne. Aram’s rule lasted only about eight months, after which Iltutmish emerged as the de facto ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
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Origin and Early Life of Iltutmish
Iltutmish’s origins were humble, yet remarkable. He belonged to the Ilbari tribe, a Turkish clan of Central Asia. Born into a noble family, he initially led a life of comfort and promise. But in a strange twist of fate, his brothers, possibly out of envy, sold him into slavery. This marked the beginning of a long and winding journey that would eventually take him to the zenith of power in northern India.
His early years were spent in the hands of slave traders. Initially bought by a noble family related to the Sadr-i-Jahan of Bokhara, Iltutmish was treated with decency and care, reflecting the influence of Persian etiquette and Islamic scholarly culture. Subsequently sold to a merchant named Haji of Bokhara, he was eventually taken to Ghazni, a significant center of the Ghurid Empire. During this phase, he is believed to have interacted with important intellectual figures, including the renowned Sufi saint Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
Iltutmish’s talents did not go unnoticed. Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori once attempted to purchase him and another slave named Tamghan Aibak for 1,000 gold coins. However, the slave dealers initially refused. Eventually, on Qutbuddin Aibak’s recommendation, Iltutmish was brought to Delhi and purchased for one lakh jitals—a high price, indicating his potential. He was assigned important military duties and gradually rose through the ranks.
Career under Qutbuddin Aibak
Once under Aibak’s tutelage, Iltutmish’s administrative and military career rapidly flourished. He was first appointed Sar-jandar, the head of bodyguards. His loyalty, military prowess, and administrative skills earned him promotion as Amir-i-Shikar (Master of the Hunt), and later, he was granted the iqta of Gwalior after its conquest in 1200 CE.
His real moment of elevation came when he was given the iqta of Badaun, one of the largest and wealthiest provinces in the Delhi Sultanate. His performance there was exemplary, demonstrating both fiscal competence and administrative discipline. He also participated in the Khokkar campaign with Qutbuddin Aibak and Muizzuddin Ghori in 1205–06 CE. For his role in suppressing the Khokkar rebellion, he was awarded a khilat (robe of honour) and was recommended for manumission, a rare privilege for a slave, indicating formal emancipation.
At that point, many leading figures like Yalduz, Qabacha, and even Aibak himself were still technically mamluks (slaves). Iltutmish’s possible manumission symbolized his rising stature and may have helped cement his claim to the throne later.
Challenges at the Time of Accession
When Iltutmish assumed power in 1211 CE, the Sultanate was deeply fragmented. The realm was rife with internal dissension, regional satraps asserting autonomy, and external threats looming from Afghanistan and Central Asia.
- Ali Mardan, a rebel governor in Bengal, had declared himself independent.
- Nasiruddin Qabacha, based in Multan, had occupied regions like Bhatinda, Quhram, and Sarsut. After Aram Shah’s death, he even moved into Lahore.
- Several Rajput states had ceased tribute payments and declared independence.
- Ranthambor, under Rai Pithora’s son, refused to accept Delhi’s suzerainty.
- Jaleswar, a minor Rajput principality, had declared full independence.
Further complicating the situation was the ambition of Yalduz, a former slave and military commander based in Ghazni, who claimed the legacy of Muizzuddin Ghori and aspired to be the king of Hindustan.
Challenges After Ascending the Throne
Iltutmish inherited a fragmented and volatile political landscape upon his accession to the throne. Various regional powers had asserted their independence following Aibak’s death. Ali Mardan declared himself the ruler of Bengal, while Qabacha extended his power from Multan to Lahore, occupying regions like Bhatinda and Sarsut. The Chauhans in Jaleswar and Ranthambore also rejected Delhi’s authority.
Yalduz, a former ally, now posed a serious threat from Lahore. Furthermore, the bodyguards in Delhi revolted in favor of Aram Shah. Iltutmish swiftly quelled the rebellion, but reasserting authority in neighboring regions required relentless effort. Initially, Iltutmish’s domain extended from Varanasi in the east to the Siwalik hills in the west. However, he needed to consolidate this power further.
The external situation also became precarious with Yalduz claiming kingship over Hindustan after being expelled from Ghazni by Khwarizm Shah. In response, Iltutmish launched a military campaign and defeated Yalduz at the Battle of Tarain. Capturing Yalduz effectively severed Delhi’s ties with Ghazni, solidifying Iltutmish’s claim to sovereign authority.
Conflict with Yalduz and the Battle of Tarain
In one of his earliest strategic military moves, Iltutmish neutralized the threat posed by Yalduz. Around 1215 CE, Yalduz was expelled from Ghazni by Khwarizm Shah and retreated to Lahore, declaring himself the rightful ruler of the Indian territories.
Iltutmish swiftly moved against him and defeated him in the Battle of Tarain. Yalduz was captured and imprisoned, thereby severing Delhi’s dependency or connection with Ghazni and consolidating Iltutmish’s position as the uncontested sovereign of north India.
Campaigns against Qabacha and the Consolidation of Punjab
After securing Delhi and defeating Yalduz, Iltutmish turned his attention to Nasiruddin Qabacha. Initially, there may have been an understanding between them, as Hasan Nizami alludes to, but Qabacha’s refusal to comply with its terms led Iltutmish to invade Lahore in 1217 CE. Qabacha fled, and Iltutmish occupied Lahore unopposed, establishing his own administration.
However, this did not result in full control over Punjab. Qabacha still retained Sindh and continued to pose a threat.
The Mongol Threat and the Role of Jalaluddin Mangabarni
During this period, Central Asia witnessed massive upheaval due to the Mongol onslaught led by Genghis Khan. The Khwarizm Empire was shattered, and Jalaluddin Mangabarni, the son of the last Khwarizm Shah, sought refuge in the Indian subcontinent.
Mangabarni entered Punjab, married locally, and challenged both Qabacha and Iltutmish. Though he tried to seek asylum, Iltutmish carefully avoided offending Genghis Khan and diplomatically refused shelter.
Nevertheless, Mangabarni’s presence disrupted Iltutmish’s control over Punjab and Sindh for a few years. Only after 1224 CE, when Mangabarni left India, could Iltutmish resume his expansionist agenda.
Defeat and Death of Qabacha
Iltutmish took advantage of Qabacha’s weakened position and Mongol pressure to march towards Uch in 1224 CE. Qabacha retreated to the island fortress of Bhakkar (Dakar). Despite a prolonged siege and initial attempts at negotiation, Qabacha was ultimately defeated. While trying to escape, he drowned in the Indus (Sind) River.
With this, the entire western frontier, including Multan, Uch, and Sindh, fell into Iltutmish’s hands. This not only secured the north-western frontier from internal threats but also brought strategic ports and trade centers under Delhi’s control.
Iqta System
The Iqta system was a land revenue administration mechanism introduced by Sultan Iltutmish during the early 13th century. Under this system, the Sultanate’s territories were divided into units called Iqtas, which were assigned to nobles, military officers, and officials known as Muqtis or Iqtadars. These individuals were responsible for collecting land revenue and maintaining law and order in their respective regions. In return, they retained a portion of the collected revenue to maintain troops for the Sultan’s service.
Over time, the system underwent modifications. For instance, Sultan Alauddin Khalji implemented measures to prevent Iqtadars from developing independent power bases by transferring them periodically and increasing bureaucratic oversight. Later, Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq made Iqtas hereditary to appease the nobility .
Currency Reforms
The Delhi Sultanate’s monetary system saw significant changes, particularly under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351). Facing a shortage of silver, he introduced a token currency made of copper and brass, assigning it the same value as the silver tanka. This move was inspired by the Chinese practice of using paper money. However, the new coins were easy to forge, leading to widespread counterfeiting and a loss of public confidence. The resulting economic chaos forced the Sultan to withdraw the token currency and redeem the coins with precious metals, depleting the treasury.
Turkan-e-Chahalgani
The Turkan-e-Chahalgani, also known as the Corps of Forty, was a council of forty powerful Turkic nobles established by Sultan Iltutmish. This elite group of military leaders and administrators played a crucial role in governance and succession matters during the early Delhi Sultanate period.
However, their growing influence became a threat to the Sultan’s authority. Recognizing this, Sultan Balban (r. 1266–1287), who had once been a member of the Chahalgani, took decisive action to dismantle the group upon ascending the throne. He aimed to centralize power and eliminate any challenges to his rule
Extent of the Empire and Administrative Achievements
The defeat of regional rivals allowed Iltutmish to extend his empire to:
- Varanasi in the east,
- Siwalik Hills in the north,
- Malwa and Bundelkhand in central India,
- and the coastal areas of Sindh in the west.
He secured the vassalage of rulers such as Shimuddin Chanisar of Deval, thereby bringing key forts and ports under Delhi’s authority. His khutba was read and coins struck in his name as far as Makran and Kusdar, indicating a wide sphere of influence.
Diplomatic Relations and Mongol Policy
A hallmark of Iltutmish’s diplomatic acumen was his cautious and prudent policy toward the Mongols. He refrained from offering refuge to Jalaluddin Mangabarni and avoided any confrontation with Genghis Khan. This ensured the safety of the Delhi Sultanate during a time when most of Central Asia was laid waste by Mongol invasions.
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