The Sources Of Ancient Indian History

Explore the key sources of ancient Indian history, including literary texts, inscriptions, coins, archaeology, and foreign travelers’ accounts. This detailed guide is for students and history enthusiasts.
Understanding the rich tapestry of ancient Indian history requires delving into a diverse array of sources that offer insights into its culture, society, religion, and politics. These sources provide a multifaceted view of the past from sacred texts to archaeological findings. Below is an organized exploration of the key sources used to study ancient Indian history, as outlined in the provided content.

The Vedas: Shruti (Heard)

The Vedas, categorized as shruti (heard), are among the oldest and most revered texts in Indian tradition. Each Veda comprises four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. These texts provide invaluable insights into ancient Indian religious practices, philosophy, and societal norms.

• Rig Veda Samhita: Contains 1,028 hymns arranged in 10 books (Mandalas). Books 2–7, known as the family books, are considered the oldest.
• Sama Veda: Features verses mostly borrowed from the Rig Veda, arranged according to musical notation for liturgical purposes.
• Yajur Veda: Focuses on the performance of rituals, providing detailed instructions for sacrificial ceremonies.
• Atharva Veda: The latest Veda, it includes hymns, spells, and charms, reflecting a broader range of societal practices.
• Brahmanas: Prose explanations of the Samhita portions, detailing sacrificial rituals and their outcomes.
• Aranyakas: Known as forest books, these interpret sacrificial rituals symbolically and philosophically.
• Upanishads: Explore philosophical ideas about sacrifice, the body, the universe, and concepts like atman (soul) and brahman (universal spirit).

The Vedas also have various recensions (shakhas):

• Rig Veda: Shakala shakha.
• Yajur Veda: Shukla (White) school (only mantras) and Krishna (Black) school (mantras with commentary).
• Sama Veda: Kauthuma, Ranayaniya, and Jaiminiya.
• Atharva Veda: Shaunaka and Paippalada.

A major challenge in using the Vedas as historical sources is dating the Rig Veda and correlating its evidence with archaeological findings, which often proves difficult.

Smriti Texts: Vedanga, Puranas, Epics, Dharmashastra, and Nitishastra

The smriti (remembered) texts encompass a wide range of literature, including Vedanga, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastra, and Nitishastra. These texts complement the Vedas by providing narratives, legal codes, and ethical guidelines.

The Two Sanskrit Epics: The Ramayana and Mahabharata

The Ramayana and Mahabharata fall under the smriti category and are also classified as itihasa (history). Their similarities in language and style suggest they emerged from a common cultural milieu.

• Mahabharata:
  • Composed between c. 400 BCE and c. 400 CE.
  • Consists of 18 Parvas and is traditionally attributed to Vyasa, though it is not the work of a single individual.
  • Reflects an earlier period, set in the Indo-Gangetic divide, with strong female characters and practices like niyoga (levirate marriage).
  • Some historians argue it was a Brahmanical response to Buddhism, Jainism, and the rise of dynasties like the Nandas and Mauryas.
• Ramayana:
  • Composed between the 5th/4th century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
  • Consists of seven Kandas (books) and is traditionally attributed to Valmiki, with a compact vocabulary and style suggesting a single author.
  • Set in a period where the political center had shifted eastward.

Using these epics as historical sources requires identifying their internal chronological layers, a complex task. Archaeological evidence does not confirm the historical basis of their events, and traditional accounts place Rama in the Treta Yuga and the Mahabharata war in the Dvapara Yuga.

The Puranas

The Puranas are not the work of one person or era, with their composition spanning from overlapping with the Vedas to the 4th–5th centuries CE. There are 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas) discussing five key topics:

• Creation of the world (sarga).
• Re-creation (pratisarga).
• Periods of the various Manus (manvantaras).
• Genealogies of gods and rishis (vamsha).
• Accounts of royal dynasties (vamshanucharita).

The Puranas conceive time in four ages (yugas): Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali, forming a mahayuga. A thousand mahayugas constitute a kalpa, divided into 14 manvantaras, each presided over by a Manu. The periodic destruction and re-creation of the world are central themes.

• They reference historical dynasties like the Haryankas, Shaishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas, Andhras (Satavahanas), and Guptas (4th–6th centuries).
• They provide accounts of mountains, rivers, and places, aiding the study of historical geography.
• They reflect the emergence of devotional cults, especially toward Vishnu and Shiva.
• The Puranas served as vehicles for Brahmanical social and religious values.

The Dharmashastra

The Dharmashastra texts articulate the concept of dharma, the natural law governing the universe and moral conduct. Dharma guides individuals toward the four purusharthas (goals): dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), and moksha (liberation).

The Dharmashastra is subdivided into:

• Dharmasutras (600–300 BCE): Part of Vedanga literature, alongside Shrautasutras (Vedic sacrifices) and Grihyasutras (domestic sacrifices).
• Smritis (200 BCE–900 CE).
• Commentaries composed between the 9th and 19th centuries.

A person’s dharma depends on gender, age, marital status, varna (social class), and ashrama (life stage: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha, sannyasa). The Dharmashastra also addresses personal, civil, and criminal law, offering normative and prescriptive guidelines.

Buddhist Literature

Buddhist literature is divided into canonical and non-canonical texts, providing a non-Brahmanical perspective on ancient India.

• Canonical Texts: The Pali Tipitaka of the Theravada school is the oldest, comprising:
  • Sutta Pitaka: Contains the Buddha’s discourses on doctrinal issues in dialogue form, divided into five Nikayas (Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, Khuddaka). The Khuddaka Nikaya includes the Jatakas (stories of the Buddha’s past lives) and Theragatha/Therigatha (songs of monks and nuns).
  • Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for monks and nuns of the sangha.
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Systemization of Sutta Pitaka teachings.
  • Composed between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE.
• Non-Canonical Texts:
  • Milindapanha (1st century BCE–1st century CE): A dialogue on philosophical issues between King Milinda (Indo-Greek Menander) and monk Nagasena.
  • Pali/Sri Lankan chronicles like Dipavamsa (4th–5th centuries) and Mahavamsa (5th century), offering historical-cum-mythical accounts of the Buddha, Emperor Ashoka, and Buddhism’s arrival in Sri Lanka.
  • Sanskrit texts like Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita (1st/2nd century) and Avadana texts (stories with morals), and Saddharma-pundarika (accounts of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and Mahayana doctrines).

These texts replace the Brahmanical perspective with a Buddhist one, offering unique insights into ancient Indian society.

Jaina Literature

Jaina literature, known as the Siddhanta or Agama, is primarily in Ardha-Magadhi, a Prakrit dialect.

• Shvetambara Canon: Includes 12 Angas, 12 Uvamgas (Upangas), and other texts, compiled in the 5th or 6th century at a council in Valabhi, Gujarat, presided over by Devarddhi Kshamashramana.
• Non-Canonical Works: Partly in Prakrit (Maharashtri) and Sanskrit, including commentaries (Niryuktis, Bhashyas, Churnis in Maharashtri; Tikas, Vrittis, Avachurnis in Sanskrit).
• Jaina Puranas: Hagiographies of tirthankaras (saints), such as the Adi Purana (9th century) about Rishabha, and the Parishishtaparvan (12th century) by Hemachandra, detailing early Jaina teachers and political history.

Sangam Literature and Later Tamil Works

The earliest South Indian literature, known as Sangam literature, comprises old Tamil texts from literary gatherings in Madurai, Kapatapuram, and Madurai.

• Sangam Corpus (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE):
  • Six of the eight anthologies in Ettutokai (The Eight Collections).
  • Nine of the ten pattus (songs) in Pattuppattu (The Ten Songs).
  • Early parts of the Tolkappiyam (grammar work).
• Poem Types: Akam (love) and puram (war), modeled on older bardic songs, offering insights into everyday life.
• Post-5th Century Works:
  • Didactic works like Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural (on ethics, polity, and love).
  • Epics like Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
  • Devotional poetry by Vaishnava (Alvars) and Shaiva (Nayanars) saints, compiled as Nalayira Divya Prabandham and Tirumurai (10th century).
  • New genres: Kalampakams (linked poems), Kovai (thematic sequences), and Tutu (messenger poems).

Early Kannada and Telugu Literature

• Kannada:
  • A 9th-century work on poetics.
  • Karnataka, a Jaina stronghold, produced works with Jaina themes by poets like Pampa (Adi Purana, Vikramarjunavijaya), Ponna, and Ranna (10th century). Neminatha’s Lilavati (12th century) narrates a Kadamba prince’s love story.
• Telugu:
  • Nannaya laid the foundations of Telugu poetic style. Tikkana added 15 Parvas to Nannaya’s Mahabharata.
  • Telugu literature matured during the Kakatiya period (14th century) and peaked under Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509–29 CE).

Other Ancient Texts, Biographies, and Histories

• Sanskrit Poets and Playwrights:
  • Ashvaghosha: Buddhacharita, Sariputraprakarana.
  • Bhasa: Dramas like Pancharatra, Balacharita.
  • Kalidasa (4th–5th centuries): Dramas (Malavikagnimitra) and poetic works (Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta).
• Historical Dramas:
  • Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa (7th/8th century): Depicts Chanakya’s maneuvers to win over Rakshasa for Chandragupta.
• Narrative and Technical Literature:
  • Panchatantra: Folk tale collections.
  • Grammatical texts: Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, Patanjali’s Mahabhashya.
  • Kautilya’s Arthashastra: On statecraft.
  • Astronomical texts: Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya, Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita.
  • Others: Kamasutra (sensual pleasure), Charaka Samhita (medicine), Natyashastra (performing arts).
• Biographies:
  • Banabhatta’s Harshacharita (7th century): The oldest surviving Indian biography, about Harshavardhana. Though incomplete, it portrays Harsha as an ideal ruler with nuanced imperfections.
  • Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita (12th century): About Chalukya kings, especially Vikramaditya VI.
  • Tamil biographies: Nandikkalambakkam (9th century) about Pallava king Nandivarman III.
  • Prithvirajaraso by Chand Bardai (early Braj-bhasha): About Rajput king Prithviraja Chauhan.
  • Hemachandra’s Kumarapalacharita (12th century): About Chaulukya kings of Gujarat.

Ancient biographers aimed to display literary skills and flatter royal patrons, which must be considered when using these texts as historical sources.

Accounts of Foreign Writers

Foreign accounts provide external perspectives on ancient India, though historians must distinguish between hearsay and personal experience.

• Greek and Latin Texts:
  • Megasthenes’ Indica: Written as an ambassador of Seleucus Nikator to Chandragupta Maurya’s court.
  • Works by Arrian, Strabo, Pliny, and the anonymous Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (2nd century BCE–2nd century CE).
• Chinese Monks:
  • Faxian (399–414 CE) and Xuanzang (629 CE) traveled to India to collect Buddhist manuscripts and visit sacred sites, shedding light on Buddhism and contemporary society.
• Arab Scholars:
  • Al-Biruni’s Tahqiq-i-Hind covers Indian scripts, sciences, geography, astronomy, astrology, philosophy, literature, beliefs, and customs, helping identify the Gupta era’s initial year.
  • Arabic accounts like Sulaiman’s refer to trade and political history.

Archaeology and the Early Indian Past

Archaeological evidence complements textual sources but does not provide a complete picture, as surviving artifacts are often discarded items.

• Limitations: Not all material traits survive, and the stratigraphic context (precise level and associated artifacts) is crucial.
• Contributions:
  • Sheds light on cultural processes, prehistory, and aspects of everyday life (e.g., crops, agricultural implements, hunted animals).
  • Reconstructs trade and interaction networks.
  • Cognitive archaeology explores beliefs and religious practices beyond textual accounts.
• Ethno-Archaeology: Studies modern communities (e.g., craftspersons, hunter-gatherers) to interpret ancient practices.

Epigraphy: The Study of Inscriptions

Epigraphy involves deciphering inscriptions and studying ancient writing (palaeography).

• Ancient Scripts:
  • The oldest deciphered inscriptions (late 4th century BCE) are in Brahmi and Kharoshthi, including Ashoka’s edicts.
  • No clear link exists between the Harappan script and Brahmi/Kharoshthi.
  • Kharoshthi (written right to left, derived from Aramaic) was used in Gandhara.
  • Brahmi evolved into Siddhamatrika (late 6th century), from which modern north Indian scripts emerged.
  • Tamil-Brahmi appeared in rock shelters and caves, followed by southern scripts (Grantha, Tamil, Vatteluttu).
• Languages:
  • Early Brahmi inscriptions are in Prakrit; later ones (1st–4th centuries CE) mix Sanskrit and Prakrit.
  • The first long Sanskrit inscription is Rudradaman’s Junagadh rock inscription.
  • Sanskrit dominated from the 4th–6th centuries, with regional languages emerging later.
  • Tamil inscriptions appeared in the 2nd century, with bilingual Tamil-Sanskrit Pallava inscriptions from the 7th century.
  • Kannada inscriptions date to the late 6th/early 7th century; Malayalam inscriptions to the 15th century.
• Classification:
  • Official (e.g., Ashoka’s edicts, royal land grants) vs. private records (e.g., temple grants by individuals/guilds).
  • Donative, dedicative, and commemorative inscriptions (e.g., Ashoka’s Lumbini pillar, hero stones).
  • Prashastis (panegyrics) like Kharavela’s Hathigumpha inscription and Samudragupta’s Allahabad prashasti.
• Memorial Stones:
  • Reflect values associated with life and death (e.g., chhaya stambhas in Andhra, hero stones in Karnataka).
  • Examples include inscriptions commemorating a woman’s heroic death and a dog named Kali.
• Historical Value:
  • Inscriptions are durable and contemporaneous, reflecting actual practices.
  • They indicate political control, dynastic history, settlement patterns, agrarian relations, and religious practices.
  • They reveal forgotten sects (e.g., Ajivikas, yaksha/naga cults) and provide dateable information.
  • Challenges include exaggerated royal claims and conflicting dynastic genealogies.

Numismatics As Sources: The Study of Coins

Numismatics analyzes coins to understand monetary history, trade, and political systems.

• History of Indian Coinage:
  • Early exchange relied on barter; the Rig Veda mentions nishka (gold ornaments), but not coins.
  • Coinage emerged in the 6th–5th centuries BCE amid state formation, urbanization, and trade, referenced in Buddhist texts and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi.
  • Punch-Marked Coins: Silver and copper, irregular in shape, found across the subcontinent, divided into Taxila-Gandhara, Kosala, Avanti, and Magadhan types.
  • Uninscribed Cast Coins: Made from melted metal poured into molds.
  • Indo-Greek Coins (2nd/1st century BCE): Die-struck, round, mostly silver, bilingual, and bearing rulers’ names/portraits.
  • Kushana Coins (1st–4th centuries CE): Large-scale gold coins with kings on the obverse and deities on the reverse.
  • Local Coins: Issued by chieftains, kings, and merchant guilds (negama).
  • Satavahana Coins: Die-struck silver with Prakrit legends.
  • Gupta Coins: Well-executed gold dinaras with Sanskrit legends and religious symbols.
  • Post-Satavahana: Ikshvaku lead coins; early medieval coins included billon, copper, and gold in various regions.
  • Cowries supplemented coins in many areas.
• Historical Insights:
  • Coins reflect monetary history, trade networks (e.g., Kushana and Roman coins), and economic conditions (e.g., debasement indicating financial crises or metal shortages).
  • The circulation area suggests empire extent, though coins often traveled beyond borders.
  • Coins provide political history (e.g., Indo-Greek kings known mainly from coins) and biographical details (e.g., Chandragupta I’s marriage to a Lichchhavi princess).
  • Depictions of deities reveal royal religious preferences and cult prominence (e.g., Balarama/Krishna on 2nd-century BCE coins).
  • Terms like gana on Yaudheya/Malava coins indicate non-monarchical polities.

Conclusion

The study of ancient Indian history is enriched by a vast array of sources, each offering unique perspectives. The Vedas, epics, Puranas, and Dharmashastra provide religious, philosophical, and legal insights, while Buddhist, Jaina, and Tamil literature offer non-Brahmanical and regional views. Archaeological evidence, inscriptions, and coins complement textual sources, revealing everyday life, trade, and political dynamics. Foreign accounts add external perspectives, though their reliability varies. By carefully analyzing these sources, historians can reconstruct a nuanced understanding of ancient India’s complex and vibrant past.

Further Studies: A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century