Dara Shikoh: A Scholar Crown Prince Never An Emperor

Prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and Empress Mumtaz Mahal, occupies a unique place in medieval Indian history. Born on March 20, 1615, he was a polymath whose contributions straddle the domains of politics, spirituality, religious scholarship, literature, and interfaith dialogue. A crown prince with legitimate claims to the Mughal throne, Dara Shikoh stood apart not for his political ambitions alone but more so for his intellectual openness and unparalleled commitment to religious pluralism. His life and works continue to be relevant in today’s age of growing religious intolerance.

Early Life and Education

Dara Shikoh received his early education under Hazrat Akhund Mirak, a reputed scholar of the Qadri Sufi Silsila. From a young age, he mastered Arabic and Persian, later acquiring proficiency in Sanskrit and Urdu. He was deeply grounded in Tafsir (Quranic exegesis) and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), which were essential elements of elite Islamic education at the time. Alongside traditional Islamic scholarship, Dara was drawn to the mystical realm of Tasawwuf or Sufism. His interactions with prominent Sufi saints like Hazrat Mian Mir, Mir Badakhshi, and Baba Lal Das nurtured in him a liberal, inclusive worldview.

These spiritual mentors played a formative role in his evolving understanding of religious universality and humanistic values. This spiritual base laid the foundation for Dara’s later work in interfaith dialogue, comparative religion, and metaphysical philosophy.

Inclination Towards Mysticism and Spiritual Scholarship

Though Dara Shikoh was a serious contender for the Mughal throne during Shah Jahan’s declining years, he leaned more toward the life of a mystic and scholar. He was less concerned with realpolitik and more engrossed in spiritual contemplation and metaphysical inquiry. His orientation toward Sufism and spiritual enlightenment finds expression in his works like Risala-i-Haqnuma and Safinat-ul-Auliya.

In Risala-i-Haqnuma, Dara acknowledges that he was naturally inclined toward God without rigorous austerities, and that his enlightenment came through the kindness of saints and spiritually awakened beings. Safinat-ul-Auliya further elaborates on his journey into the mystical dimensions of existence, showing his reverence for saints like Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jeelani (RA), the founder of the Qadri Sufi order.

Shift to Comparative Religion and Interfaith Dialogue

Dara’s spiritual journey can be divided into two phases. Initially, he was a devout follower of Sufism. In the latter phase of his life, however, he developed a keen interest in comparative religion, especially the metaphysical and monotheistic parallels between Islam and Hinduism. This intellectual transition culminated in his magnum opus, Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Confluence of Two Oceans), a profound treatise on the essential unity of religious traditions.

Majma-ul-Bahrain aims to bridge the gap between Islamic and Hindu philosophies by focusing on their shared metaphysical principles. Dara postulated that the fundamental tenets of Islam and Hinduism were not contradictory but complementary. He avoided exclusivist religious terminology; for instance, while translating the Quranic phrase “Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim”, Dara consciously refrains from using “Allah”, “Rahman”, or “Raheem”, and instead renders it as: “In the name of one who hath no name; with whatever name thou callest Him. He uplifteth His head.”

This translation itself is a radical spiritual statement—a clear attempt to de-link divine recognition from linguistic and religious exclusivity. It underscores Dara’s vision of inclusivity, his respect for all faiths, and his foundational belief in the unity of divine essence across religions.

Theological Syncretism and Intellectual Courage

Dara’s comparative approach stemmed from his belief in Wahdat-i-Adyan, or Unity of Religions, a concept grounded in both Sufi monism and Vedantic pantheism. His exposure to the philosophy of Ibn-ul-Arabi and the teachings of Baba Lal Das deeply shaped his views. He recognized the shared metaphysical essence of all major faiths and emphasized what he called “Unity in Plurality.”

In the preface to Majma-ul-Bahrain, Dara notes that after imbibing the true spirit of Sufism, he felt an unquenchable thirst to learn about other monotheistic traditions. His discourses with learned men from different faiths, and his study of their scriptures, reinforced his conviction that the core message of Islam and Hinduism was essentially the same.

This understanding influenced his interpretation of several Quranic verses. A significant example is his take on the verse describing the Kitab-i-Maknun (56:77-79). While traditional interpretations identified the Kitab-i-Maknun as the Torah, Gospel, or Psalms, Dara boldly claimed it referred to the Upanishads. This was an unprecedented assertion in Islamic scholarship and demonstrated his intellectual courage and innovative spirit.

Emphasis on Ijtihad and Rational Inquiry

A striking aspect of Dara Shikoh’s religious philosophy is his advocacy of Ijtihad, or independent reasoning. He challenged the orthodoxy of Taqlid—the unquestioning acceptance of traditional scholarly interpretations—and instead promoted Aql (reason) as a means to religious truth. Dara believed that many Muslims harbored hostility toward Hindus simply because they lacked genuine knowledge of Hindu religious philosophy.

To address this, he commissioned and undertook translations of Hindu scriptures into Persian. Among the most important of these was the translation of the Upanishads, titled Sirr-i-Akbar (“The Great Secret”). This was the first Persian translation of the Upanishads, carried out with clarity, fluency, and scholarly diligence. Dara consulted classical Sanskrit commentaries to ensure accuracy, and his purpose was explicitly to present Hindu monotheism as consistent with Islamic Tawhid.

He also translated the Yog Vashistha and compiled other works like Muntakhab Bedant, Turjuma Jog Bashishth, and Sawal-o-Jawab Baba Lal-o-Dara Shikoh. These efforts aimed at creating a platform where Hindu and Islamic philosophies could engage in meaningful, rational, and respectful dialogue.

Philosophy of Unity and Ethical Universality

Dara’s core philosophy is rooted in the Sufi idea that a true seeker must dissolve the self (Nafs) to attain divine union. He says a sincere Muslim must battle not only external forces but also internal arrogance—particularly the egoistic assertion of “I am and no other.” He criticizes the militant mindset that seeks to conquer others in the name of faith and instead advocates a spiritual expansion that allows the seeker to merge with the universal soul.

According to Dara, a saintly person meets the world not with hostility but with the “unlimited love of his true heart.” This idea of universal personhood (Shakhs-i-Kul) allows the saint to embrace the entirety of creation and feel unity with both God and humankind. This is not just an ethical vision but also a deeply mystical one—where love becomes the means of spiritual conquest rather than the sword.

Legacy and Relevance Today

Dara Shikoh’s works are not mere historical footnotes; they offer a powerful vision for pluralism, rationalism, and spiritual tolerance. In a time when religious strife and sectarianism are resurging across the globe, Dara’s life serves as a reminder that the spiritual and intellectual essence of religions can offer common ground for dialogue rather than division.

His interfaith doctrine was rooted in sincerity, respect, and rational inquiry. Rather than diluting Islamic or Hindu teachings, Dara sought to emphasize their shared commitment to ethical monotheism and spiritual liberation.

Despite his noble intentions and prodigious intellect, Dara Shikoh was executed in 1659 by his younger brother Aurangzeb, who saw his ideas as heretical and politically threatening. However, history remembers Dara not as a failed prince but as a luminous torchbearer of tolerance, wisdom, and ecumenical thought.

1. Majma-ul-Bahrain (“The Confluence of Two Oceans”)

• Written: c. 1655 CE
• Language: Persian
• Content: This is Dara Shikoh’s most famous philosophical work, where he explores the similarities between Sufi Islam and Advaita Vedanta (non-dualistic Hindu philosophy).
• Significance: He argued that the mystical traditions of Islam and Hinduism ultimately point toward the same truth — the Unity of Being (Wahdat al-Wujud in Sufism and Advaita in Vedanta). He discusses shared metaphysical ideas such as the soul’s union with the Absolute, the illusion of the material world, and the inner path to divine realization.
• Impact: This book is a landmark in Indo-Islamic philosophy and interfaith dialogue. It was intended to foster mutual understanding between Muslims and Hindus in Mughal India.

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2. Sirr-i-Akbar (“The Great Secret”)

• Written: c. 1657 CE
• Language: Persian (translated from Sanskrit)
• Content: This work is a Persian translation of 50 Upanishads, the foundational philosophical texts of Hinduism.
• Purpose: Dara believed that the Upanishads were the “Kitab al-Maknun” (Hidden Book) mentioned in the Qur’an (Surah Waqi’ah, 56:77–79), containing divine wisdom in a veiled form. He considered them consistent with the monotheistic spirit of Islam.
• Method: He collaborated with Sanskrit scholars from Varanasi (like Pandit Kavindracharya) and consulted traditional Vedantic commentaries to ensure accuracy.
• Significance: This was the first-ever Persian translation of the Upanishads, and it later inspired Anquetil-Duperron to translate them into Latin (Oupnek’hat, 1801–1802), thus introducing Hindu philosophy to European Enlightenment thinkers like Schopenhauer.

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3. Safinat-ul-Auliya (“The Boat of the Saints”)

• Written: c. 1640 CE
• Language: Persian
• Content: A biographical compilation of early Sufi saints, especially of the Qadiri order, to which Dara was affiliated.
• Focus: It includes sketches of personalities like Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, whose teachings significantly influenced Dara.
• Purpose: It served as an introduction to the Sufi tradition and its spiritual masters for the broader public and the Mughal elite.

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4. Sakinat-ul-Auliya (“Peace of the Saints”)

• Written: c. 1642 CE
• Language: Persian
• Content: A continuation and expansion of Safinat-ul-Auliya, with a focus on Indian Sufi saints and their spiritual teachings.
• Significance: The work also reflects Dara’s deep reverence for Indian mystics and his belief in the spiritual compatibility of Indian and Islamic traditions.

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5. Hasanat-ul-Arifin (“The Sayings of the Gnostics”)

• Language: Persian
• Content: A compilation of moral aphorisms, spiritual advice, and mystical sayings from renowned Sufi saints and gnostics (Arifin).
• Purpose: The text serves as a guide to ethical and spiritual conduct, rooted in love, tolerance, and inner discipline.
• Notable Feature: It combines ethical teachings from multiple traditions and often blurs religious boundaries.

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6. Risala-i-Haq Numa (“The Treatise on the Display of Truth”)

• Language: Persian
• Content: An autobiographical spiritual tract in which Dara recounts his mystical experiences, search for truth, and Sufi realizations.
• Significance: It provides insight into Dara’s personal spiritual evolution and how he moved from orthodox Islamic learning to a more esoteric and universal understanding of religion.

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7. Turjuma-i-Yoga Vashistha (“Translation of the Yoga Vashistha”)

• Language: Persian (translated from Sanskrit)
• Content: A Persian translation of the Yoga Vashistha, a key Vedantic text traditionally attributed to Sage Valmiki.
• Theme: The work discusses metaphysical issues such as free will, the illusion of the world (maya), reincarnation, and liberation (moksha).
• Purpose: To show the philosophical and mystical compatibility between Vedantic and Sufi thought.

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8. Muntakhab-i-Upanishad / Muntakhab Bedant (“Selections from Vedanta”)

• Language: Persian
• Content: A selection and summary of key philosophical passages from the Upanishads, especially focused on non-dualism.
• Intention: Dara sought to highlight the monotheistic and spiritually elevated aspects of Hinduism that aligned with Islamic mysticism.

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9. Sawal-o-Jawab Dara Shikoh wa Baba Lal Das (“Dialogue between Dara Shikoh and Baba Lal Das”)

• Language: Persian
• Content: A philosophical dialogue between Dara and Baba Lal Das, a Hindu saint, discussing topics such as the nature of God, soul, moksha, and the meaning of divine love.
• Importance: The work is a rare example of genuine interfaith debate conducted with mutual respect and philosophical depth.

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10. Makatib-i-Dara Shikoh (Letters of Dara Shikoh)

• Language: Persian
• Content: A collection of personal letters, especially those written to Shaikh Muhibullah Allahabadi, a prominent Sufi.
• Purpose: The letters give insights into his inner struggles, spiritual aspirations, and political dilemmas.

Summary Table of Major Works

Title	Language	Nature	Focus
Majma-ul-Bahrain	Persian	Philosophical Treatise	Sufi-Vedanta synthesis
Sirr-i-Akbar	Persian (from Sanskrit)	Translation	Upanishads
Safinat-ul-Auliya	Persian	Hagiography	Sufi Saints
Sakinat-ul-Auliya	Persian	Hagiography	Indian Mystics
Hasanat-ul-Arifin	Persian	Aphoristic Wisdom	Ethical Teachings
Risala-i-Haq Numa	Persian	Autobiography	Spiritual Realizations
Turjuma-i-Yoga Vashistha	Persian (from Sanskrit)	Translation	Vedanta Text
Muntakhab Bedant	Persian	Philosophical Summary	Selections from Vedanta
Sawal-o-Jawab Baba Lal wa Dara Shikoh	Persian	Dialogue	Interfaith Theology
Makatib Dara Shikoh	Persian	Letters	Personal & Spiritual Thought

The corpus of Dara Shikoh’s works reflects an extraordinary attempt to reconcile the religious diversity of India through scholarship, spiritual empathy, and intellectual rigor. His texts remain foundational to Indo-Islamic mysticism and are valuable resources for anyone interested in interreligious dialogue, comparative theology, or Mughal intellectual history.

Dara Shikoh’s patronage to poets and scholars

Prince Dara Shukoh (1615–1659), the eldest son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, was not only a scholar and mystic himself but also an enthusiastic patron of poets, scholars, translators, and theologians from diverse intellectual traditions. His court attracted a unique blend of Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit scholars, Sufi mystics, and Hindu pandits, thus turning his intellectual circle into a vibrant crucible of interreligious dialogue, syncretic philosophy, and literary creativity.

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1. Patronage to Sufi Scholars and Mystic Thinkers

Dara Shukoh’s deep affiliation with Sufism, particularly the Qadiri order, shaped his support for numerous Sufi scholars and mystics. He was a devoted disciple of Miyan Mir’s spiritual successor, Mulla Shah Badakhshi, and promoted Qadiri literature, hagiographies, and ethical tracts.

• He commissioned and wrote biographical works on Sufi saints such as Safinat-ul-Auliya and Sakinat-ul-Auliya, promoting a reverent memory of Indian and Persian saints.
• His support for Shaikh Muhibullah Allahabadi, an eminent Sufi theologian, included personal correspondence and dissemination of his ideas at court.

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2. Patronage to Persian Poets and Literati

Dara’s court became a center of Persian literary culture, where court poets and prose stylists received attention and recognition. Among the noted figures:

• Muhammad Afzal Lahori, an esteemed Persian poet, praised Dara’s learning and mystical inclinations in his Divan.
• Dara’s own Persian prose, as found in Majma-ul-Bahrain and Hasanat-ul-Arifin, influenced later Persian literary style in the Mughal realm through its clarity, philosophical density, and poetic symbolism.

Furthermore, his patronage encouraged Persian translations of sacred Sanskrit texts. His court provided patronage for scribes, poets, and translators to render complex Sanskrit ideas into accessible Persian prose for an Indo-Persian Muslim elite.

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3. Patronage to Sanskrit Scholars and Hindu Pandits

One of Dara’s most historically significant acts of patronage was extended to Hindu scholars, especially during his scholarly interactions in Varanasi, which was then a major center of Sanskrit learning.

• He employed a team of Pandits led by Kavindracharya Sarasvati, with whom he studied Sanskrit and the Upanishads.
• This collaboration resulted in the Persian translation of the Upanishads, titled Sirr-i-Akbar, marking the first ever translation of the Upanishads into a non-Indian language.
• Dara also sponsored the Persian translation of the Yoga Vashistha and portions of the Bhagavad Gita, seeking a deeper metaphysical understanding of Hindu thought.

Through this unique initiative, he brought Hindu philosophical texts into the Islamic and Persianate intellectual discourse, a radical and unprecedented move at the time.

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4. Patronage of Translation and Philosophical Inquiry

Dara Shukoh’s patronage extended to the translation movement at the Mughal court, which mirrored the spirit of Akbar’s Ibadat Khana but with more focus on metaphysical synthesis.

• He believed the Upanishads to be the “Kitab al-Maknun” (“Hidden Book”) alluded to in the Qur’an (56:77-79), which must be unveiled to bridge spiritual understanding.
• His translations and philosophical writings were not purely personal ventures but institutional efforts supported by resources, scholars, and scribes under his patronage.

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5. Scholarly Circles and Intellectual Exchange

Dara created an inclusive scholarly circle that welcomed Sufis, Brahmins, and Shi’a thinkers alike. His writings frequently reference dialogues and discussions with both Muslim scholars and Hindu sages.

• Notably, the Sawal-o-Jawab Dara Shikoh wa Baba Lal Das captures one such philosophical dialogue with a Hindu saint, reflecting a scholarly environment where mutual questioning and exploration were encouraged under his patronage.
• His wide-ranging interests in metaphysics, Qur’anic hermeneutics, and Advaita Vedanta made his court a centre for comparative theology and cross-cultural scholarship.

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Significance of His Patronage

Dara Shukoh’s patronage was driven not by political calculation, but by a genuine intellectual and spiritual curiosity. Unlike other Mughal patrons who largely confined themselves to Persian or Islamic traditions, Dara actively sought to integrate Sanskritic and Islamic traditions, fostering an ethos of intellectual pluralism and syncretism.

His tragic execution in 1659 by his brother Aurangzeb marked not only a dynastic defeat but also a cultural and ideological rupture — a decisive end to the Mughal tradition of spiritual eclecticism and interreligious dialogue.

Bibliography and References

1. Alam, Muzaffar & Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. Writing the Mughal World: Studies on Culture and Politics. Columbia University Press, 2012.
2. Sharma, Sunil. Persian Poetry at the Mughal Court: A Literary History. Bloomsbury, 2017.
3. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
4. Chandra, Satish. Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs and the Deccan. Vikas Publishing, 1993.
5. Faruqui, Munis D. The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
6. Lorenzen, David N. Who Invented Hinduism? Yoda Press, 2006.
7. Dara Shukoh. Majma-ul-Bahrain and Sirr-i-Akbar, translated excerpts in Bibliotheca Indica series, Asiatic Society of Bengal.
8. Qanungo, K. R. Dara Shukoh. Allahabad: Kitabistan, 1935.
9. Begley, W. E. “The Dara Shukoh Album,” in Mughal and Rajput Painting. Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, 1979.

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