Explore the religious movements during the Delhi Sultanate, including the rise of Sufism and the Bhakti tradition, their impact on medieval Indian society, syncretic cultural developments, and resistance to orthodoxy. Understand how spirituality shaped the political and social landscape between the 13th and 16th centuries. The Delhi Sultanate, from the early 13th to the early 16th century, was a period of political consolidation and cultural synthesis and a time of profound religious churning.
As Indo-Islamic rule established itself over a predominantly Hindu society, a variety of religious movements emerged, reflecting both convergence and contestation. While the orthodox ulema attempted to shape Islamic life under the Sharia, mystic Sufi orders spread a more inclusive message of divine love and spiritual union. Simultaneously, within the Hindu fold, the Bhakti movement gained momentum, offering personal devotion and inner spirituality as alternatives to rigid ritualism and caste hierarchies. These movements were not isolated phenomena but vibrant responses to the social, cultural, and political dynamics of the time, shaping the religious landscape of medieval India in enduring ways.
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Introduction: Religious Contrast and Interaction
During the Delhi Sultanate period (13th–16th century), India witnessed significant religious developments. Two dominant religious cultures — Islam and Hinduism — came into close contact. These two faiths differed fundamentally in belief and practice:
- Islam taught belief in one God (Allah) and that the Prophet Muhammad was His final messenger. It strongly opposed idolatry and image worship.
- Hinduism, on the other hand, celebrated diversity, accepted many gods, and encouraged idol worship.
This clear theological difference led to tensions, especially in the early years of Muslim rule, which were marked by temple destructions and resistance. But with the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate, both communities gradually moved towards a mutual adjustment and understanding.
This mutual adjustment was significantly shaped by two religious movements:
- The Sufi Movement within Islam
- The Bhakti Movement within Hinduism
Together, they helped soften religious boundaries, foster dialogue, and promote a more spiritual and inclusive approach to religion, even though elements of conflict still lingered.
Cultural Encounters and Exchange of Ideas
By the 9th century, Islam began interacting with other rich cultural and religious traditions — including those of Iran, Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire), and India. These interactions influenced various aspects of Islamic thought and society:
- Greek thought is believed to have influenced Islamic philosophy (e.g., ideas from Aristotle found echoes in the writings of philosophers like Al-Farabi and Avicenna).
- Iranian and Byzantine traditions shaped Islamic architecture and administration.
- The influence of Indian philosophy and science on Islam is debated, though some scholars suggest mutual exchange of ideas occurred through travel and translations.
Important figures like Al-Beruni studied Indian society deeply. He lived in India during Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasions and wrote ‘Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li’l-Hind’ (Book on India), documenting Indian religious customs, sciences, and philosophy. This shows that Muslim scholars did engage with Indian traditions seriously.
Rise of Sufism As Religious Movements: A Mystical Path Within Islam
The decline of the Abbasid Caliphate led to major shifts in Islamic thinking. Earlier, rationalist philosophy dominated — rooted in the Quran and Hadith, and heavily influenced by Greek logic. However, this rationalism was attacked by orthodox scholars, who viewed it as heretical. As a result, rationalist philosophers faced persecution and decline.
In contrast, a new religious path emerged — Sufism, or Islamic mysticism.
What is Sufism?
- Sufis emphasized spiritual union with God through love, devotion, simplicity, and self-purification.
- They rejected the wealth and power of rulers, instead living humble lives.
- The name “Sufi” comes from the Arabic word ‘suf’, meaning wool, as they wore coarse woolen clothes to signify austerity.
Sufism spread widely by the 12th century, especially in India. Sufis lived in khanqahs (spiritual hospices or retreats) and formed spiritual orders called silsilahs, each headed by a spiritual master and his disciples (murids). The relationship between teacher and disciple was central to Sufi life.
Types of Sufis
There were two broad types of Sufis in India:
- Orthodox Sufis: These Sufis strictly followed Islamic law (Sharia).
- Unorthodox or Wandering Sufis: They were less concerned with the law and more focused on personal spiritual experience, wandering from place to place.
Some Sufi saints became so widely respected that both Hindus and Muslims revered them.
Major Sufi Orders in India
Two major Sufi orders (silsilahs) became prominent during the Delhi Sultanate:
- Chishti Order
- Suhrawardi Order
Chishti Order
- Named after Chisht, a town in Afghanistan.
- Brought to India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled in Ajmer around 1206, the same time the Delhi Sultanate was being established.
Muinuddin Chishti
- Led a life of simplicity, devotion, and spirituality.
- He did not encourage conversion but believed faith was a personal matter.
- Refused state patronage and avoided politics.
- After his death in 1235, his dargah (tomb) in Ajmer became a major pilgrimage site, visited by rulers like Muhammad bin Tughluq and Akbar.
Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
- Disciple of Muinuddin, settled in Delhi in 1221.
- Welcomed by Iltutmish; helped make Delhi a center of Chishti Sufism.
- Faced opposition from orthodox ulema for holding musical gatherings (sama), but was protected by the Sultan.
- His popularity led many to consider moving with him to Ajmer, though the plan was abandoned due to the mass following.
Baba Farid
- Successor of Kaki, moved from Hansi (Haryana) to Ajodhan (now Pakpattan in Pakistan).
- Lived an austere life; stressed poverty, fasting, and self-control.
- Some of his verses were later included in the Guru Granth Sahib, showing his influence on Sikhism.
Nizamuddin Auliya
- Died in 1325, the most celebrated Chishti Sufi.
- Lived in Delhi through turbulent political periods but never associated with rulers, staying true to Chishti ideals.
- His clash with Muhammad bin Tughluq is well known, though some historians suggest the conflict was with Ghiyasuddin Tughluq.
- Advocated tolerance, love, and service to humanity.
Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi
- Successor of Nizamuddin, died in 1356.
- Initially involved in politics during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq but later withdrew.
- Did not name a successor, leading to the dispersal of the Delhi Chishti order as his followers spread across the country.
Core Values of the Chishti Order
- Spiritual independence: Avoided government service or royal patronage.
- Economic ethics: Followers could engage in professions but had to remain honest.
- Tolerance: Welcomed voluntary conversions, avoided violence, and respected Hindu sentiments (e.g., Muinuddin Chishti becoming vegetarian).
- Dialogue: Freely discussed ideas with Hindu yogis and Jain monks, including yogic exercises.
This inclusive approach made the Chishti saints immensely popular, even among non-Muslims. Their khanqahs became centers of spiritual healing, learning, and social reform.
However, in Kashmir, the Sufi attitude was less accommodating. While Sufi saints appeared outwardly friendly, they often supported temple destruction, showing regional variations in their practice of tolerance.
Suhrawardi Order
- Founded in India by Bahauddin Zakariya, based in Multan (present-day Pakistan).
- Though also mystics, Suhrawardis differed from Chishtis in several key ways:
Differences from Chishtis
- Accepted Royal Patronage: Zakariya accepted land grants and gifts from rulers.
- Did Not Embrace Poverty: Lived in comfort, wore fine clothes, and argued that wealth could help the poor.
- More Orthodox: Emphasized rituals, legal formalities, and Islamic law, aligning more with the ulema.
- Accepted Political Association: Maintained close ties with rulers, contrasting sharply with Chishti ideals.
Zakariya was known for his charity, and his order remained influential in Punjab and Sindh for over 150 years. However, not all his followers were peaceful:
- Sheikh Jamaluddin, a Suhrawardi, came to Bengal, forcibly converted Hindus, and destroyed temples to build khanqahs — a reminder that not all Sufis were non-violent or tolerant.
Different Attitudes Toward the State
The core difference between the two Sufi orders lay in their relationship with the state:
- Chishtis: Rejected state authority, followed Al-Ghazali’s idea that government income was tainted, and that accepting it was illegitimate.
- Suhrawardis: Accepted state help and saw material resources as a way to serve society.
Bhakti Movements
The Bhakti Movement was a spiritual revolution that emphasized personal devotion (bhakti) to God. It was not just a religious movement but also a social and cultural awakening that challenged orthodox rituals, caste discrimination, and rigid social hierarchies. The idea behind the Bhakti Movement was that God resides within every individual, and that a sincere devotee can attain union with God through love, devotion, and faith, without the need for rituals or priests.
Early Origins of Bhakti
The Bhakti tradition can be traced back to ancient times, even before Islam arrived in India. Elements of bhakti are found in the Vedas and Upanishads. Later, epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, especially the Bhagavad Gita, highlighted devotion to God as a path to salvation.
As Prof. Satish Chandra noted, Bhakti was increasingly seen as a way to achieve moksha (salvation). The word “Bhakti” originally meant a loyal follower who enjoyed the master’s wealth. Over time, it came to mean a devotee who, out of deep love, served God selflessly.
In some legends like that of Prahlad in the Vishnu Purana, devotion was not just about service, but unconditional love. Over time, this evolved into passionate forms of devotion, as seen in stories of Radha and Krishna, especially described in the Bhagavata Purana (9th century).
Bhakti Movement in South India
The Bhakti Movement began to flourish between the 6th and 10th centuries AD in Tamil Nadu, eventually spreading across southern India, including Kerala. Saints known as Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) spread their messages in local languages.
These saints came from all sections of society: Brahmins, lower castes, and even women. They preached that God is for everyone, regardless of caste, gender, or status. Their use of simple language and incorporation of local myths made them popular among the masses.
The Bhakti saints also attracted followers from Buddhism and Jainism, which at that time had become heavily ritualistic and were losing touch with common people. Bhakti preachers filled this gap with their emotional and relatable messages.
Even rulers like the Pallavas supported Bhakti saints, offering them gifts and grants. There are legends about saints performing miracles to influence rulers, but this could also be because kings sought legitimacy and social harmony through such associations. For example, Mahendra Varman, a Pallava ruler, turned against the Jains, destroyed their monasteries, and expelled them from his court.
At the philosophical level, Sankaracharya (early 9th century) challenged Buddhist ideas with his Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), arguing that there was no real separation between the world and God. This helped in reclaiming philosophical ground from Buddhist and Jain thinkers.
However, the Bhakti Movement risked losing its egalitarian values after Buddhism and Jainism declined. But Ramanuja (11th century) revived it by emphasizing God’s grace as more important than mere knowledge. He opened Bhakti to all castes and linked it with Vedic teachings.
Later in the 12th century, Basava, a Brahmin and minister in the Chalukya court, led the Virashaiva or Lingayat movement in Karnataka. This group strongly opposed the caste system and stood for social equality.
Bhakti Movement in North India
Although the seeds of Bhakti existed in north India earlier, it became widespread only after the 14th century. Scholars like Sankaracharya visited the north for intellectual debates in the 9th century, but Bhakti did not become a mass movement until centuries later.
In the north, Buddhism and Jainism had already lost prominence before the Bhakti Movement took shape. Rulers like the Guptas supported Hinduism, and Harshavardhana worshipped Shiva without opposing Buddhists. Later, Rajput rulers strengthened the caste system and allied with Brahmins, who gave them Kshatriya status in return for land and privileges.
This strong alliance between Rajputs and Brahmins left little room for alternative or dissenting religious movements. Any group that challenged the caste order faced resistance not only from priests but also from rulers.
However, dissident groups like Tantrics and Nathpanthis emerged. These groups were inclusive of lower castes and women, worshipped female deities, and offered an alternative to orthodox religion. They were often labeled as enemies by the Brahmins. The Nathpanthis spread far and wide, even traveling to Central and West Asia from their base in Peshawar.
The Turkish invasion and the fall of Rajput power broke the Rajput-Brahmin alliance. Temples were destroyed, and Brahmins lost influence and status. This change in power dynamics allowed the Bhakti Movement to grow in northern India.
Some sociologists argue that Bhakti was an ideology of the ruling class due to its emphasis on suffering. But Prof. Satish Chandra disagreed, stating that the mass nature of the Bhakti Movement cannot be explained that way. Another view is that Bhakti was a defense mechanism against Islamic influence. However, this too is problematic because Bhakti ideas existed before the arrival of Islam. Moreover, the social hierarchy in Islam also became rigid over time, and converted Muslims were often looked down upon.
Popular Bhakti Saints and Their Teachings
The Bhakti Movement in north India included many saints who preached love and unity. For example:
- Jnaneswar (12th century) wrote in Marathi and emphasized bhakti.
- Namdev (14th century) wrote devotional poetry in Marathi, stressing love and faith. He traveled widely and interacted with Sufi saints in Delhi.
Ramananda, based in Varanasi, focused on the worship of Rama. He rejected caste distinctions and accepted disciples from lower castes, including:
- Kabir, a weaver
- Ravidas, a cobbler
Ramananda also ate with his lower-caste followers, setting a powerful example of social reform.
Kabir (probably born in the 15th century) is one of the most famous Bhakti saints. According to legends, he was born to a Brahmin woman and raised by a Muslim family in Varanasi. He adopted weaving as his profession and was influenced by both Hindu and Muslim mystics, especially the Nathpanthis.
Kabir preached in simple, powerful language that God is one, whether called Rama or Allah. He rejected:
- Idol worship
- Pilgrimages
- Ritual bathing
- Formal prayers like Namaz
- Asceticism and bookish knowledge
Instead, he emphasized living a moral life as a householder. He strongly believed in human equality and criticized both Hindu and Muslim religious leaders for upholding social injustice. Kabir advised saints to stay away from state power since the state supported social inequality.
Though Kabir was illiterate, his followers preserved his teachings. Over time, his influence declined, but he continues to be a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion
Guru Nanak (born in 1467) was born into a Khatri family in Talwandi near the Ravi River (now in Pakistan). He learned Persian and accountancy from his father but preferred the company of saints and mystics. He sang devotional songs accompanied by a musical instrument.
Guru Nanak’s teachings laid the foundation of the Sikh religion. He preached:
- The unity of God
- The rejection of caste distinctions
- The importance of honest work, devotion, and sharing
He traveled widely to spread his message and is remembered as a great spiritual leader who promoted religious harmony.
Core Principles of the Bhakti Movement
- Personal Devotion: Emphasis on a direct, personal relationship with God, without intermediaries.
- Equality: Rejection of caste distinctions; all individuals, regardless of social status, could attain salvation through devotion.
- Use of Vernacular Languages: Saints composed hymns and teachings in local languages, making them accessible to the general populace.
- Rejection of Rituals: Criticism of elaborate rituals and emphasis on sincere devotion as the true path to God.
- Social Reform: Challenge to societal norms, including the caste system and gender discrimination.
Impact on Indian Society
Religious and Cultural Influence
The Bhakti Movement led to the proliferation of devotional literature in regional languages, enriching Indian culture and literature. It also influenced other religious movements, including Sikhism and Sufism, promoting ideas of love, devotion, and unity.
Social Reforms
By challenging the caste system and promoting equality, the Bhakti Movement laid the groundwork for social reforms. It provided a platform for marginalized communities to express their spirituality and attain social recognition.
Conclusion
The religious movements of the Delhi Sultanate era reveal a complex tapestry of spiritual dialogue, negotiation, and transformation. In an age marked by conquest and cultural encounters, Sufism and Bhakti acted as bridges between communities, softening orthodox boundaries and emphasizing a universal quest for the divine. They offered solace and meaning to the masses amidst the uncertainties of political change, while also challenging institutionalized religion and social discrimination. These movements not only enriched Indian religious thought but also laid the foundation for future syncretic traditions that define the subcontinent’s pluralistic ethos. Ultimately, the spiritual ferment of this period testifies to the enduring human desire for transcendence, unity, and inner truth in the face of temporal power and division.
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