The iqta system was a pivotal institution that underpinned the political, administrative, and military structure of the Delhi Sultanate from the early 13th century until the advent of the Lodi dynasty. Initially devised as a pragmatic means to reward military service and ensure loyalty without undermining the central power, the iqta system evolved into a complex administrative machinery through the successive reigns of the Sultanate rulers. This article explores the origins, evolution, and structural transformations of the iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate, highlighting its implications for the polity and the challenges of centralization.
Table of Contents
Origins of the Iqta System
The term iqta is of Arabic origin and referred, in the Islamic world, to a grant of revenue made to military or civil officials in lieu of salary. This institution was already in use under the Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuqs, and its adaptation in India can be attributed to the needs of the early Turkish rulers who established their authority in North India after the Ghurid invasions. The initial Turkish conquests displaced local chiefs—rais and ranas—and to secure loyalty and establish governance, the Turkish rulers began assigning territorial revenues to military commanders and nobles.
In this system, the iqta was a revenue assignment rather than a grant of land ownership. The assignees, known as muqtis or walis, were entitled to collect land revenue from their designated territories. They were responsible for defraying their personal and administrative expenses, maintaining a contingent of troops, and remitting the surplus (fawazil) to the central treasury.
Types Of Iqtas
1. Iqta-e-Khassa (Royal/Khalisa Iqtas)
- Definition: Lands whose revenue went directly to the Sultan’s personal treasury.
- Holder: Not assigned to any noble or muqti for long-term use.
- Functions: Managed by royal agents for the expenses of the court and central administration.
2. Iqta-e-Imlak (Proprietary Iqtas)
- Definition: Assigned as rewards or gifts to individuals, often retired officials or nobles.
- Holder: Nobles and officers; in some cases, these were hereditary.
- Functions: Granted as permanent or life-long assignments; holders had quasi-proprietary rights.
3. Iqta-e-Istiqlal (Autonomous Iqtas)
- Definition: These were iqtas that became nearly independent over time.
- Holder: Powerful muqtis who began asserting autonomy from the central authority.
- Functions: No longer fully under the control of the Sultan; these often evolved into autonomous or rebellious provinces.
4. Military Iqtas)
- Definition: Assigned to military commanders to support their troops and maintain military obligations.
- Holder: Soldiers, military officers, and commanders.
- Functions: Primarily for maintaining a standing army; muqti would pay the soldiers and send surplus revenue (fawazil) to the central treasury.
5. Wajh (Late Tughlaq and Lodi Period Term)
- Definition: A term used for iqtas assigned to soldiers during the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
- Holder: Called wajhdars.
- Functions: Soldiers received villages instead of cash salaries; these often became hereditary and permanent over time.
Structural Features and Early Implementation
The iqta system was neither hereditary nor permanent in its original form. Transfers were frequent—usually every three to four years—ensuring that no muqti could build a power base in a single region. This feature distinguished the iqta from the fief (beneficium) of medieval Europe, which was both hereditary and non-transferable.
The muqtis performed multiple functions: they were administrators, military commanders, and revenue collectors in their respective regions. Nizam-ul Mulk Tusi, the Seljuq statesman, in his Siyasatnama, emphasized the ethical obligations of muqtis, noting that they were to collect only rightful revenue and had no claim over the life, property, or family of the subjects. His advice, though idealistic, set normative expectations for the conduct of muqtis.
Development under the Delhi Sultans
The iqta system was first institutionalized under Sultan Iltutmish (1210–1236), who assigned small iqtas in the Doab region to soldiers in lieu of cash salaries. Under Balban (1266–1287), attempts were made to assert greater control through administrative reforms, including the appointment of khwajas (accountants) to audit the income and expenses of the muqtis. However, the real transformation began under Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316), who ushered in a more centralized and stringent system.
Alauddin sought to curb the autonomy of the nobility by demanding detailed audits, regulating revenue collection, and enhancing estimated revenues (taufir) on various pretexts. The Diwan-i-Wizarat (Finance Department) prepared revenue estimates for each iqta, and irregularities were met with severe punishment. This rigorous surveillance curtailed the misuse of resources and limited the capacity of muqtis to challenge the Sultan.
Peak and Decline under the Tughlaqs
Under Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325), there was a moderation in policy. Muqtis were allowed to retain a small percentage (1/10th to 1/20th) of the revenue beyond their sanctioned salaries. However, it was under Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) that the iqta system underwent the most significant reconfiguration. In an attempt to centralize authority and limit the fiscal powers of the muqtis, he bifurcated military and revenue responsibilities.
In some cases, two officials were appointed: an amir, responsible for military affairs, and a wali-ul-kharaj, responsible for revenue collection. Muhammad Tughlaq also directed that soldiers maintained by muqtis should be paid in cash by the central treasury, not by the assignees. These measures, though administratively rational, disrupted the entrenched expectations of the nobility and led to political unrest and rebellion.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) reversed many of his predecessor’s policies. He restored hereditary rights over iqtas, sanctioned new revenue assessments (jama), and increased cash salaries. Under his rule, iqtas began to solidify into permanent holdings. While his reign witnessed fewer rebellions, the central weakening of authority facilitated long-term decentralization.
Later Transformations and Disintegration
By the time of the Lodis (1451–1526), the iqta system had undergone significant transformation. The term “iqta” was largely replaced with administrative units called sarkars and parganas. The muqti had evolved into a wajhdar, and the institutional boundaries between revenue and administration had blurred. The system of sub-assignments also gained prominence during the reign of Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517), where the primary assignee would delegate portions of his assignment to subordinates.
Under the Lodis, the practice of regular transfer of iqta-holders was also largely abandoned. Territories came to be known as vilayats, and their governors, often referred to as walis, wielded extensive powers. These changes indicate a shift away from centralized oversight and a trend toward hereditary and localized control of revenue and administration.
Conclusion: The Iqta System as an Instrument of Governance and Control
The iqta system was a critical instrument in the Delhi Sultanate’s efforts to consolidate power, finance its military apparatus, and manage the empire’s vast territorial expanse. Initially designed to ensure loyalty without disrupting the political unity of the state, the system underwent significant evolution over time—from a temporary and non-hereditary assignment to a more permanent and hereditary structure.
While it served the state’s needs effectively in the formative years, the eventual ossification of the iqta system contributed to the weakening of central authority, especially under Firuz Tughlaq and the Lodis. Nonetheless, the iqta system represents an important innovation in the administrative history of medieval India, reflecting the Sultanate’s attempts to adapt Islamic administrative traditions to the Indian context.
References:
- A.B.M. Habibullah, The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India, Allahabad, 1976
- Peter Jackson, The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History
- Irfan Habib and K.A. Nizami (Eds.), Comprehensive History of India, Vol. 5
- Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals
- I.H. Qureshi, The Administration of the Delhi Sultanate
- Nizam-ul Mulk Tusi, Siyasatnama
