The story of Ghiyasuddin Balban’s rise in the Delhi Sultanate is one of ambition, resilience, political skill, and administrative reform. From being sold as a slave to ascending the throne of Delhi, Balban’s journey reflects the volatile and dynamic nature of power in the 13th-century Sultanate. His reign marks a significant transformation in the political and administrative structures of the Sultanate, one that had lasting effects on the trajectory of Indo-Islamic governance.
Table of Contents
Early Life and Entry into Power
Balban was born into an Ilbari Turkic tribal family and experienced the misfortune of being sold into slavery at a young age. Eventually, he was purchased by Iltutmish, the third Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. This marked the beginning of his gradual ascent in the ranks of the royal court.
As Balban matured and gained the trust of the royal establishment, he found himself closely allied with Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. By the fourth year of Nasiruddin’s reign, Balban married the Sultan’s daughter. Subsequently, he was appointed Naib-i-Mumalik (Deputy of the Empire), earning the title Ulugh Khan. This position essentially made him the de facto ruler, as Nasiruddin Mahmud was known more for his piety and religious devotion than for active governance. Balban’s loyal service and growing power effectively made him the backbone of the administration for nearly two decades.
The Mysterious Death of Nasiruddin Mahmud and Balban’s Accession
The death of Nasiruddin Mahmud in 1266 remains shrouded in ambiguity. Chronicler Minhaj-i-Siraj suddenly ceased writing his account around this time, and the contemporary historian Barani is also silent on the details. While most accounts suggest that Mahmud died of an illness, some medieval sources offer a more sinister narrative. Ibn Battuta claimed that Balban murdered the Sultan, while Isami suggested poisoning and even claimed that the people of Delhi suspected foul play. These theories gain traction when seen in the context of how frequently murder was used to eliminate rivals among the early Mamluk rulers.
At the time of Mahmud’s death, Balban was approximately twenty to twenty-four years older than the Sultan. By 1253, the faction known as Qurlugh-Kishlu Khan had risen in prominence, and one of Mahmud’s sons was named Amir-i-Hajib, though too young to rule, requiring guidance. After Balban came to power, this prince was removed from office. It’s evident that Balban, keen on consolidating power, did not tolerate potential rivals.
Despite some unrest in Delhi following Mahmud’s death in 1266–67, Balban faced no serious opposition in assuming the throne. According to Ferishta, Balban eliminated or neutralized any Iltutmish descendant who could contest his authority. Once enthroned, he was accepted by the nobles and government officials, many of whom pledged allegiance without resistance. However, the fate of earlier prominent nobles such as Ayaz and Minhaj remains unknown. Balban projected an image of divine ordination and even claimed descent from the mythical Iranian king Afrasiyab.
Consolidation of Power and Elimination of Rivals
Balban faced immediate political challenges, particularly the threat of rivals among the nobility. One of his foremost priorities was to realign the power structure of the Sultanate and eliminate the overbearing influence of Turkish slave nobles, who had historically dominated court politics. This group, known as the Chahalgani or Turkan-i-Chihalgani (The Forty), had previously exercised significant influence, often undermining the Sultan’s authority.
Balban systematically dismantled their power. He resorted to political assassinations, using poison and daggers to eliminate both real and perceived threats. Descendants of Iltutmish, former nobles, and even his own relatives who posed a challenge were executed. The celebrated military commander Sher Khan, despite his distinction, was poisoned due to Balban’s jealousy.
Although these actions can be criticized as ruthless, they were part of Balban’s broader strategy to centralize authority and protect the throne for his heirs. However, the purge of capable Turkish nobles eventually left the Sultanate weakened in terms of military leadership, and this void later facilitated the rise of the Khaljis.
Restoration of Law and Order
One of the defining achievements of Balban’s rule was the restoration of law and order across the Sultanate. Before his reign, the empire was mired in chaos—plundering near Delhi, banditry, rebellion in the Doab region, and the loss of control over Awadh had made life unsafe and economic activity uncertain. Barani, a contemporary historian, vividly described the anarchy that plagued the Sultanate.
The most notorious lawbreakers were the Meo dacoits from the forests outside Delhi, whose presence made the highways so dangerous that even water-fetching became perilous. The western gate of Delhi was closed every afternoon due to fear. Balban launched a military campaign that lasted a year, during which he cleared the Meo-infested forests. He built a fort at Gopalgir and established police posts along the highway. To ensure the security forces’ presence, the surrounding lands were made tax-exempt.
Reestablishing Control Over the Doab and Other Regions
After subduing the Meos, Balban turned his attention to the fertile and strategically vital Doab region. Rebellious villages were razed, and remaining settlements were given as iqta (land grants) to loyalists responsible for their upkeep and defense. Dense forests were cleared to eliminate hiding spots for rebels and criminals.
Balban’s campaign extended to Awadh, where he spent six months suppressing bandits. These efforts revitalized trade along key routes and brought peace, which in turn reduced prices in Delhi as commodities and slaves poured into the city. Fortifications and mosques were constructed to reinforce the state’s presence. Jalali, once a bandit stronghold, was transformed into a fortified town populated by Afghan settlers.
A particularly dangerous rebellion in the Cather region saw Balban marching for two days and three nights with a large army. According to Barani, he ordered a general massacre. Although not fully confirmed, the fact that Cather remained subdued for generations suggests a brutal suppression.
Foreign Policy and Defensive Posture
Despite his aggressive internal policies, Balban adopted a conservative foreign policy. He prioritized internal stability over territorial expansion. His reasons were sound: Rajput states posed a constant threat of rebellion, and the looming danger of Mongol invasions made it imperative to keep forces stationed near Delhi. He rarely ventured far from the capital and maintained a vigilant defense apparatus.
Control Over Nobility and Military
Being a Turk himself, Balban deeply understood the character and ambitions of the Turkish nobility. He recognized three major threats: their ambition, their tendency to dominate the throne, and their grip over the border regions. To prevent the recurrence of past power struggles, he reduced their influence drastically. Those he could not control, he eliminated. The Chahalgani was dissolved, and many of its members killed.
One of Balban’s major policy consequences was the elimination of competent Turkish commanders, which eventually paved the way for the rise of the Khaljis. Though Balban’s administrative reforms had strengthened the Sultanate, the lack of capable successors within the Turkish elite weakened the empire’s long-term military capacity.
Army Reorganization and Military Discipline
Balban considered a strong and disciplined army the cornerstone of a stable empire. Upon ascending the throne, he embarked on a massive military reorganization. He increased the number of troops and installed loyal commanders in key positions. Their salaries were secured through revenue from designated villages.
To maintain troop morale, he increased the wages of common soldiers and advised his son, Boghra Khan, never to economize on military expenditure. Balban frequently joined hunting expeditions with his soldiers, using them as a form of training and morale-boosting.
Military discipline was rigid. Soldiers were monitored to prevent them from exploiting civilians during campaigns. Balban famously waited during river crossings to ensure that the elderly and weak passed first. To enforce accountability, he appointed Qazi-i-Laskar (military judges) based on integrity. His Arz-i-Mumalik (military minister) was Imadul Mulk, a former slave and uncle of poet Amir Khusrau, who proved instrumental in reorganizing the army and managing finances.
Iqta Reforms
The iqta system, initially introduced to maintain administrative and military control, had become dysfunctional after Iltutmish’s death. Turkish iqtadars in the Doab, originally posted to secure the frontier, had become hereditary landlords with little allegiance to the central government. They no longer contributed financially or militarily.
Balban conducted a comprehensive review of the iqtas. Many iqtadars were found dead or too old to serve. Their iqtas were confiscated. While some elderly were given pensions (₹20–30), able-bodied youth were inducted into the military with cash salaries. This centralization deeply upset many nobles, who appealed to Malik Fakhruddin, Delhi’s kotwal, to reverse the decision. Eventually, Balban did cancel the order, revealing his pragmatism in dealing with resistance.
Centralized Administration and Surveillance
Balban enforced tight control over the entire administrative machinery. All appointments, even for minor posts, required his personal approval. Provincial governors were monitored rigorously. Regular reports were mandated, and a system of audit ensured proper account-keeping.
His sons were appointed to govern frontier provinces like Multan and Lakhnauti to secure them. Balban believed in preventing any single official from amassing excessive power. He removed both military and financial powers from the wazir and gave them to more loyal ministers. One such appointment was Khawaja Hasan, a weak wazir who posed no threat to royal authority.
To ensure loyalty and check malpractices, Balban established a network of barids or royal spies. These spies reported directly to him, keeping track of governors, military commanders, and even his sons. He advised his heirs to maintain this practice but not allow these informants near the royal court.
Balban’s rule represents a crucial chapter in the Delhi Sultanate’s evolution. His reign was marked by authoritarian centralization, severe discipline, and a deep sense of political realism. He transformed the Sultanate from a loosely held confederation of nobles into a more integrated, centralized state.
His suppression of the nobility, while stabilizing the throne during his lifetime, left the Turkish elite leaderless, inadvertently smoothing the path for the rise of the Khaljis. However, his administrative and military reforms strengthened the state’s foundations and allowed subsequent rulers to benefit from his legacy of order and efficiency.
Balban’s vision of kingship was autocratic and divinely sanctioned. Through terror, intelligence, military might, and unrelenting vigilance, he maintained internal peace and resisted external threats. Despite his ruthlessness, history remembers him as a capable ruler who laid down the blueprint for centralized imperial governance in medieval India.
Fiscal and Military Administration
Balban’s governance was characterized by a systematic approach to fiscal management and military upkeep. According to historical sources, he ordered that half of the state’s income from taxes be spent on immediate governance needs, especially military salaries, while the remaining half was to be saved for future contingencies. Regular payment of salaries to soldiers was a priority—a rare administrative stability in an otherwise turbulent period.
Ziauddin Barani, a prominent contemporary historian, praised Balban for maintaining efficient administration and law and order, which brought relative peace among the common populace for many years. However, while Balban maintained strict discipline among his officials and nobles, his approach toward the common people was more compassionate—except for those from lower castes, whom he reportedly despised.
Exclusionary Policies and Military Limitations
A notable aspect of Balban’s military policy was his exclusion of Indian Muslims and Hindus from the army. He restricted military positions to Turks, especially those of noble lineage or descended from former slave elites. This caste-like attitude resulted in a lack of diverse and potentially talented recruits. While his predecessors like Iltutmish and Nasiruddin had successfully quelled revolts, Balban often struggled in similar situations. The suppression of rebellions took longer, sometimes up to two years, largely due to inefficiencies in command and lack of coordination among commanders.
Despite his efforts, his forces could not withstand the Mongol threat along the western front. His commanders suffered defeats even after taking preventive steps. This exposed the vulnerability of Balban’s military setup and its failure to adequately defend the borders.
The Revolt of Tughril Khan
The most significant internal challenge Balban faced was the rebellion of Tughril Khan in Bengal in 1275. Tughril, originally a slave of Balban, was the governor of Bengal and had risen in power after a successful expedition to Jajnagar (Orissa). He acquired considerable wealth and elephants but refused to send them to Delhi. Assuming that Balban was preoccupied with Mongol invasions, Tughril declared himself Sultan with the title Mughisuddin and began issuing coins and having the khutba read in his name.
This open act of rebellion shook Balban deeply. Barani records that the Sultan was so disturbed that he could neither eat nor sleep properly. Initially, he sent Malik Aitigin, the governor of Awadh, to suppress Tughril. However, Aitigin’s forces were decisively defeated. Tughril had managed to bribe and sway many of Balban’s nobles and commanders with gifts and promises.
Balban’s fury at this defeat led him to have Malik Aitigin executed, his body publicly displayed at the main gate of Awadh. This harsh act instilled fear but also sparked rumors that Balban’s reign was nearing its end.
Balban’s Direct Campaign Against Tughril
Determined to crush the revolt, Balban chose to personally lead a campaign. Before departing, he secured Delhi by assigning responsibilities to trusted officials. His son Prince Muhammad was given charge of Samana and later Sind, while Malik Sanjar and Kotwal Fakhruddin were entrusted with other key regions. Balban and his younger son, Boghra Khan, then set out for Bengal with a large army of two lakh soldiers, elephants, horses, and ample supplies.
The expedition was delayed by the monsoon, causing waterlogging and slow progress. Tughril, underestimating Balban’s capability to travel such a distance during the rainy season, did not make defensive preparations. When Balban’s forces reached close to Hajinagar, Tughril attempted to escape. Sherandaz Khan, one of Balban’s commanders, reached Tughril’s camp while he was bathing. Tughril tried to flee but was captured and killed—his head was sent to Balban, and his body discarded in a river.
In a display of terror and authority, Balban had Tughril’s supporters hanged along a two-mile stretch from the palace to the market in Lakhnauti. This punishment, according to Barani, was unparalleled in its cruelty. After three years, Balban returned to Delhi and held celebratory processions. Initially, he ordered all soldiers who had sided with Tughril to be impaled on spears, but after pleas from their relatives and the Qazi, he revoked the sentence. Some soldiers sought refuge with the revered saint Sheikh Farid.
Dealing with the Mongol Threat and the Death of Prince Muhammad
Balban also focused on strengthening the western frontier, especially after Mongol incursions. He repaired the fort of Lahore in 1270 and resettled the surrounding deserted villages. Areas like Lahore, Dipalpur, Sunam, Samana, and Multan remained part of Delhi despite boundary shifts. Balban appointed his eldest son, Prince Muhammad, to oversee these frontier provinces.
Unlike his austere father, Prince Muhammad enjoyed moderate drinking, was highly educated, and maintained a court filled with scholars, including poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. His court frequently held literary discussions, including recitations of Shahnama.
Despite his intellectual prowess, Muhammad’s military campaigns failed. He was defeated twice by Mongol forces. When Balban called him back to Delhi, Muhammad set out but chose to attack rebellious tribes in Suman en route. At Yatral, his forces were ambushed by 3,000 Mongol cavalry. Despite warnings, Muhammad chose to fight and was ultimately killed. He was posthumously named Khan-i-Shahid. The Mongols tried to take his body back, but it was ransomed by his father-in-law. The Mongols then looted the surrounding region before returning.
This loss was a severe emotional blow to the aging Balban. At 80, the death of his chosen heir devastated him. He summoned his other son, Boghra Khan, from Lakhnauti, warning him that if he did not come, a crisis like that following Iltutmish’s death could repeat. Boghra Khan came and stayed in Delhi for three months, during which Balban’s health improved. But he left secretly without permission, returning to Lakhnauti. Balban made efforts to bring him back but failed.
Balban’s Last Days and Succession
Before his death, Balban held a meeting with top officials and declared his grandson Kaikhusrau (son of Muhammad) as his successor. However, after Balban’s death, these officials bypassed his wish and placed Boghra Khan’s son, Kaikobad, on the throne, giving him the title Muizuddin.
Assessment of Balban’s Reign
Barani and other historians admired Balban’s contribution to establishing law and order and expanding the state’s military infrastructure through the creation of forts and military posts. Without his efforts, the success of the future Khalji dynasty may not have been possible.
Nevertheless, Balban had significant shortcomings. His exclusivist policy, favoring only Turks and noble-born Muslims for military and administrative roles, alienated a growing section of Indian Muslims and converted Hindus. Many low-born Hindus had converted to Islam and were eager for upward mobility, but Balban refused to recognize this societal transformation. Additionally, educated Hindus proficient in Persian were ready to serve in the revenue and accounts departments, but Balban’s rigid classism excluded them too. This resistance to social change prevented the state from utilizing its full human potential.
Militarily, Balban failed to implement lasting reforms. While he boasted of being able to crush any revolt swiftly, it took him nearly two years to suppress Tughril. His failure to resist Mongol invasions effectively stemmed from maintaining an inadequate force along the frontiers. Sultan Muhammad’s defeat to just 30,000 Mongol horsemen underscored the weakness of Balban’s military policy. His narrow recruitment policy led to a lack of capable commanders.
It is telling that within one generation of Balban’s death, Alauddin Khalji abandoned this elitist approach, focusing instead on merit, loyalty, and efficiency—qualities that Balban’s rigid system lacked. Consequently, while Balban established a strong central authority, he left behind a brittle military and administrative structure that could not survive long after his death.
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Secondary Source:
- Aniruddha Ray- THE SULTANATE OF DELHI (1206-1526)POLITY, ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
- Satish Chandra- Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals – Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526)
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