The Sources Of Medieval Indian history, spanning roughly from the 8th to the 16th centuries, is a vibrant tapestry woven from diverse sources that illuminate the political, social, cultural, and economic life of the period. These sources include archaeological remains, epigraphic records, numismatic evidence, material artifacts and monuments, chronicles, literary works in Persian, Sanskrit, and regional languages, administrative records like firmans, bahis, pothis, and akhbarat, and accounts by foreign travelers in Persian and Arabic. This article examines each of these sources, employing straightforward language to offer a detailed understanding of their significance in reconstructing medieval Indian history, with a particular focus on the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) and its political developments.
Table of Contents
The Sources Of Medieval Indian History
Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources offer tangible evidence of medieval India’s architectural grandeur, cultural practices, and societal organization. These include temples, mosques, forts, palaces, pillars, ruins, and coins, each providing unique insights into the period’s history.
Medieval Temples
Temples were central to medieval Indian society, serving as religious, cultural, and social hubs. They reflect the patronage of rulers and the artistic achievements of the time:
- Khajuraho Temples: Built by the Chandela dynasty in Madhya Pradesh between the 9th and 11th centuries, these temples are famous for their intricate carvings, including erotic sculptures. They showcase Hindu and Jain architectural styles and provide inscriptions detailing royal patronage, social customs, and religious practices.
- Konark Sun Temple: Constructed in the 13th century by the Eastern Ganga dynasty in Odisha, this temple, designed as a chariot for the sun god Surya, is a masterpiece of Kalinga architecture. Its detailed carvings depict mythological stories, daily life, and astronomical knowledge, offering a glimpse into the region’s cultural and religious life.
- Dilwara Temples: Located in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, these Jain temples, built between the 11th and 13th centuries, are renowned for their exquisite marble carvings. Patronized by wealthy Jain merchants, they reflect the community’s economic prosperity and artistic sensibilities.
Medieval Mosques
With the arrival of Muslim rulers, mosques became prominent, blending Persian and Indian architectural elements:
- Jama Masjid, Delhi: Built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century, this mosque, though postdating the Sultanate period, represents the culmination of Indo-Islamic architecture with its red sandstone and marble structure and grand domes.
- Moti Masjid, Agra: Also a Mughal creation by Shah Jahan, this “Pearl Mosque” is known for its delicate white marble architecture, symbolizing purity and elegance.
- Fatehpur Sikri Dargah: Part of Akbar’s Fatehpur Sikri complex, the dargah of Sufi saint Salim Chishti exemplifies the fusion of Persian and Indian styles, with intricate latticework and marble inlays.
Medieval Forts
Forts were strategic strongholds and administrative centers, reflecting military and political power:
- Agra Fort: Developed significantly by Akbar, this fort served as a royal residence and military base, showcasing Mughal architectural prowess with its massive walls and ornate interiors.
- Chittor Fort, Rajasthan: A symbol of Rajput valor, this fort was repeatedly contested by Muslim rulers, with its structures reflecting Rajput resistance and architectural ingenuity.
- Gwalior Fort: A key center under the Tomars and later the Delhi Sultanate, this fort contains inscriptions and structures that highlight its historical significance.
- Red Fort, Delhi: Built by Shah Jahan, this fort, though a Mughal creation, symbolizes the continuation of fortified architecture from the Sultanate period.
Medieval Palaces
Palaces were residences of royalty, showcasing wealth and cultural influences:
- Jaipur Palace: The City Palace, built by the Kachwaha Rajputs, blends Rajput and Mughal architectural styles, reflecting their alliance with the Mughals.
- Jaisalmer Palace: Located within the Jaisalmer Fort, this palace highlights the Bhati Rajputs’ wealth from desert trade routes, with intricate sandstone carvings.
- Jodhpur Palace: Housed within the Mehrangarh Fort, this palace complex showcases Rajput grandeur and defensive architecture.
Medieval Pillars
Pillars often served as victory monuments or commemorative structures:
- Qutb Minar, Delhi: Initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1192 and completed by Iltutmish, this 238-foot minaret, made of red sandstone and marble, is the tallest in India. Its walls are adorned with Indian floral motifs and Quranic verses, symbolizing the advent of Muslim rule.
- Char Minar, Hyderabad: Built in 1591 by the Qutb Shahi dynasty, this monument, though later than the Sultanate period, exemplifies the blend of Islamic and regional styles.
Ruins of Medieval Buildings
Ruins provide insights into urban planning and societal organization:
- Hastinapur: Associated with the Mahabharata, medieval ruins here indicate continued habitation and cultural significance, with artifacts revealing trade and religious practices.
- Firozabad: Founded by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, its ruins, including Firoz Shah Kotla, showcase Tughlaq architecture and urban planning.
- Tughlaqabad: Built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq in the 14th century, this fortified city’s ruins highlight defensive strategies and administrative structures.
Coins of Emperors
Coins are crucial archaeological artifacts, providing evidence of political authority and economic systems:
- Akbar’s Coins: Known as “Louis,” these coins reflect Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance, often featuring Persian inscriptions alongside Hindu symbols, indicating cultural synthesis.
- Ala-ud-din Khilji’s Coins: These coins provide evidence of his economic reforms, such as market controls, and his military campaigns, with inscriptions detailing his titles and conquests.
Archaeological sources, through their physical remains, offer a direct connection to medieval India’s cultural, religious, and political landscape, revealing the interplay of Hindu, Jain, and Islamic influences.
Epigraphic Sources
Epigraphy, the study of inscriptions, provides precise historical data through writings engraved on various surfaces. These inscriptions are critical for understanding medieval Indian history.
Nature of Inscriptions
Inscriptions in medieval India were carved on rocks, pillars, copper plates, tablets, pots, bricks, shells, ivory plaques, and wooden surfaces. They include royal proclamations, land grants, religious dedications, and memorials. Some inscriptions, particularly on coins and seals, were created using molds or dyes, while others, such as cave paintings or ink-written records on wooden tablets, are considered inscriptions despite not being engraved. Late medieval inscriptions in Indian scripts often feature letters formed by scooping out surrounding spaces, a unique technique.
Examples and Significance
- Qutb Minar Inscriptions: These record the construction history and patronage of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish, offering insights into the early Delhi Sultanate.
- Khajuraho Inscriptions: These detail the Chandela dynasty’s patronage, including land grants and temple dedications, revealing social and economic structures.
- Copper Plates: Used for land grants, these document economic transactions, social hierarchies, and administrative policies, often in Sanskrit or regional languages.
Epigraphic records are invaluable for their contemporaneity, providing direct evidence of rulers, their genealogies, and historical events. They also reflect linguistic diversity, with inscriptions in Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, and regional languages, highlighting medieval India’s multicultural fabric.
Numismatic Sources
Numismatics, the study of coins and currency, is a cornerstone of historical research, offering insights into political, economic, and cultural aspects of medieval India.
Importance of Numismatics
Coins confirm, modify, or amplify historical narratives by providing evidence of rulers, their reigns, and territorial extents. They reveal trade networks, economic policies, and religious practices. For example:
- Akbar’s Coins: These often bore Persian inscriptions and Hindu symbols, reflecting his inclusive policies and the Mughal Empire’s economic prosperity.
- Ala-ud-din Khilji’s Coins: These indicate his market reforms and military campaigns, with inscriptions proclaiming his titles and victories.
Features of Medieval Coins
Medieval Indian coins were typically made of gold, silver, or copper and featured inscriptions in Persian, Arabic, or regional scripts. They included the ruler’s name, titles, and religious slogans, such as Islamic kalimas or Sanskrit mantras. The designs blended Islamic calligraphy with Indian motifs, showcasing cultural synthesis.
Historical Insights
Numismatic findings clarify historical events, such as the extent of a ruler’s domain or the economic prosperity of a region. For instance, coins from the Delhi Sultanate found in distant regions indicate extensive trade networks. Coins also reveal administrative practices, such as taxation systems and minting techniques, contributing to our understanding of medieval India’s economy.
Material Evidences and Monuments
Material evidences and monuments, particularly religious sites like temples, serve as “material archives” that preserve the tangible remnants of medieval India’s past. These sites offer insights into community life, artistic expression, and historical continuity.
Temples as Material Archives
Religious institutions, especially temples, were central to medieval Indian society, functioning as hubs for knowledge preservation, community identity, and cultural memory. The Harṣagiri temple complex in Rajasthan, a 10th-century site, exemplifies this:
- Harṣagiri Temple Complex: Located in Sikar, Rajasthan, this site, known as the “Mountain of Joy,” comprises multiple shrines along a mountain ridgeline. Its artifacts, including architectural fragments, carved pillars, and small sculptures, are scattered across courtyards, repurposed in modern structures, or stored in museums. These remains highlight the challenges of preservation and the need to understand curatorial practices.
- Curatorial Practices: The organization and display of artifacts at Harṣagiri are shaped by their valuation as monuments, lived spaces, or cultural patrimony. Temples under active worship prioritize ritual use, with deities’ material embodiments governing their use, often at the expense of historical preservation.
Challenges in Studying Material Archives
The overwhelming and seemingly disorganized nature of material remains poses challenges for historians. Artifacts are often displaced, repurposed, or inaccessible, requiring scholars to piece together their historical context. For example:
- Mount Harṣa (Figures 1 and 2): Satellite images reveal the temple complex’s layout, with shrines extending along the ridgeline, but the haphazard arrangement of artifacts (Figures 3–5) complicates their study.
- Repurposed Artifacts: Carved pillars and sculptures from Harṣagiri are found in residential structures, indicating local communities’ continued engagement with these sites as lived spaces.
Valuing the Past: Monument, Lived Space, and Patrimony
Medieval temple remains are physical reminders of historical events and socio-cultural realities. Studying these collections in detail reveals chronological layers and the voices of cultural agents who engaged with the site. For example, inscriptions and sculptures at Harṣagiri document the activities of rulers, artisans, and devotees across generations. However, the valuation of these sites as monuments (historical relics), lived spaces (active religious sites), or patrimony (cultural heritage) shapes their preservation and accessibility, influencing the production of historical knowledge.
Significance
Material evidences provide a tangible connection to the past, revealing aspects of daily life, religious practices, and artistic traditions that textual sources may overlook. They also highlight the interplay between local and regional identities, as seen in the architectural styles and inscriptions at Harṣagiri.
Chronicles
Chronicles are historical narratives that document the reigns of rulers and significant events, often written by court historians or contemporary observers. They provide a narrative framework for understanding political and military developments.
Key Chronicles
- Rajatarangini by Kalhana: Written in the 12th century in Sanskrit, this chronicle narrates the history of Kashmir’s kings, blending legend and fact. It offers insights into the region’s political, cultural, and social history.
- Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Zia-ud-din Barani: This Persian chronicle covers the Delhi Sultanate from Balban to Firoz Shah Tughlaq, detailing political events and administrative policies. Barani’s orthodox Islamic perspective shapes his narrative.
- Futuh-i-Firozshahi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq: An autobiography, this work provides a firsthand account of Firoz Shah’s reign, including his public works, such as canals and mosques, and religious policies.
- Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi by Yahiya-bin-Ahmad Sirhindi: Dedicated to Mubarak Shah of the Sayyid dynasty, this chronicle is the only contemporary source for the Sayyid dynasty’s history.
Significance
Chronicles offer detailed accounts of political developments, though they may reflect the biases of their authors. For example, Barani’s criticism of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s liberal policies reflects his orthodox views. These texts are invaluable for understanding the Delhi Sultanate’s political history and the rulers’ achievements.
Literary Sources
Literary sources in Persian, Sanskrit, and regional languages provide a rich tapestry of historical, cultural, and social information, encompassing poetry, prose, and treatises.
Persian Literary Sources
Persian was the dominant language of administration and literature during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods. Key works include:
- Chaknama/Fathahnama: Written in Arabic and later translated into Persian, this anonymous text describes the history of Sindh before and after Muhammad-bin-Qasim’s conquest in the 8th century, offering insights into early Islamic interactions with India.
- Law-a-Maamoudi/Jawahir Uljavahir: An anonymous work discussing the Arab invasion of Sindh, providing details on military campaigns and their impact.
- Tahkikat-e-Hind/Tareekh-ul-Hind by Alberuni: Written in the 11th century, this Persian text by Alberuni, who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni, offers a scholarly analysis of Indian society, religion, philosophy, and science. Translated into English by Sechau, it remains a critical source for early Muslim perspectives on India.
- Tarikh-a-Yamini by Utbi: This Arabic text chronicles Mahmud of Ghazni’s campaigns, detailing his military conquests and their impact on India.
- Shahnama by Firdausi: A contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni, Firdausi’s Persian epic provides a broader context for Islamic conquests, though focused on Persian history.
- Taj-ul-Maasir by Hasan Nizami: Covering 1192–1206, this Persian text is the first political compilation of the Delhi Sultanate, detailing Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s reign and early Muslim rule in India.
- Adab-ul-Harsh-Wa-Shujaat by Fakhr-e-Mudawwir: Written under Aibak’s patronage, this text provides information on the Turkish war system, highlighting military organization.
- Tabakat-e-Nasiri by Minhaj-ul-Siraj: Composed under Iltutmish, this Persian text covers history from Prophet Muhammad to Nasiruddin Mahmud (1260), offering a comprehensive account of the early Delhi Sultanate.
- Tareekh-A-Janhagusha by Alauddin Anamalik Jubilee: This text details the pursuit of Khwarazm prince Jalaluddin Mangbarni by Genghis Khan, providing context for Mongol threats to India.
- Works of Amir Khusro:
- Kiran-ul-Sadaman: A poetic work calling Delhi “Hazrat Delhi,” it describes the story of Balban’s son Bughra Khan and Kaiqubad.
- Mifatah-ul-Futul: A verse narrative of Jalaluddin Khilji’s victories.
- Khaza’in-ul-Futuh (Tareekh-a-Elahi): Describes Alauddin Khilji’s southern campaigns and Mongol invasions, noting the invention of the string in India.
- Deval-Rani-Khijrakhana (Ashika): Narrates the story of Deoldevi and Khijr Khan.
- Nuh-Sipahar: Praises India as a “garden of heaven” and covers events during Mubarak Shah Khilji’s time.
- Tughlaqnama: Details events during Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq’s reign.
- Ejaz-e-Khusrabbi: A compilation of political letters.
- Other works include Majnu-Laila, Sherene-Khusro, Hesn-Bihasht, Date-a-Delhi, Matla-ul-anwar, and Afzal-wa-kayyad, showcasing Khusro’s versatility as a poet and historian.
- Siyasatnama by Nizam-ul-Mulk-Tusi: This Persian treatise discusses slave-trading, slavery, and training activities under Turkish rulers, offering insights into administrative practices.
- Works of Zia-ud-din Barani:
- Fatwa-e-Jhadri: Reflects Barani’s orthodox views.
- Tareekh-e-Firoz Shahi: Covers the period from Balban to Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
- Fatwah-e-Jahandari: Discusses the reigns of Balban, Alauddin Khilji, and Muhammad Tughlaq.
- Diwan-a-Chach and Shahnamama by Badr-e-Chach: These praise Muhammad bin Tughlaq, reflecting courtly patronage.
- Tareekh Muhammadi by Muhammad Behimad Khani: Provides historical details of the Tughlaq period.
- Futuh-i-Salatin by Isami: Dedicated to Alauddin Bahman Shah, this text covers 999–1350, focusing on the Bahmani dynasty rather than Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
- Rehla by Ibn Battuta: This Arabic travelogue, written by a Moroccan traveler who visited India in 1333, describes Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s court, his role as Qazi, and his subsequent appointment as an envoy to China after a corruption scandal.
- Malik-ul-Alvar by Al-Umari: Details Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s economic policies and schemes.
- Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi by Shams-e-Siraj-Afif: Dedicated to Firoz Shah Tughlaq, this text describes his achievements, with references to other works on Ghiyas-ud-din and Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
- Sarit-e-Firoz Shahi: An anonymous text providing a detailed commentary on Afif’s Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi.
- Malaphujaat-e-Taimuri (Tujuk-e-Tammoori): Written in Turkish, this anonymous text describes Timur’s achievements and Turkish heritage.
- Sufi Literature:
- Fawad-us-kuad by Amir Hasan Sizzi: Records the teachings and conversations of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
- Khair-ul-Majlis by Hameed Kalandar: A compilation of Sufi saint Naseeruddin Chirag-e-Dehalvi’s commentary.
Sanskrit and Regional Language Sources
The early medieval period (c. 650–1200) saw a flourishing of regional identities, reflected in Sanskrit and regional language literature:
- Rajatarangini by Kalhana: This Sanskrit chronicle, as mentioned, is a key source for Kashmir’s history, blending myth and history to document royal dynasties and cultural practices.
- Regional Literature: Works in Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and other languages reflect regional polities and cultural developments. For example, the Tamil epic Kalingattuparani celebrates the Chola dynasty’s victories, while Kannada inscriptions from the Hoysala period document temple patronage.
- Jain and Buddhist Texts: Sanskrit and Prakrit texts by Jain and Buddhist scholars provide insights into religious and philosophical developments, often patronized by regional rulers like the Palas and Senas.
Significance
Literary sources offer diverse perspectives on medieval Indian society. Persian texts focus on political and military history, often from a courtly perspective, while Sanskrit and regional works highlight cultural, intellectual, and religious life. Together, they reveal the coexistence of multiple linguistic and cultural traditions, reflecting the period’s diversity.
Daftar Khannas: Firmans, Bahis, Pothis, and Akhbarat
Administrative records, known as daftar khannas, include firmans (royal decrees), bahis (account books), pothis (manuscripts), and akhbarat (news reports). These documents provide granular details about governance, economy, and society.
Firmans
Firmans were official orders issued by rulers, often inscribed on paper or metal plates. They covered land grants, tax exemptions, appointments, and other administrative directives, reflecting the ruler’s authority and policies.
Bahis and Pothis
Bahis and pothis were account books and manuscripts recording financial transactions, land revenues, and administrative details. They are valuable for understanding economic conditions, taxation systems, and bureaucratic practices.
Akhbarat
Akhbarat were newsletters or reports circulated within the administration, detailing court proceedings, military campaigns, and significant events. They offer a contemporary perspective on political developments.
Significance
These records complement chronicles and literary sources by providing detailed insights into governance and economic life. They are particularly valuable for the Mughal period, where administrative documentation was more systematic, but also offer glimpses into the Sultanate period’s bureaucracy.
Foreign Travelers’ Accounts
Accounts by foreign travelers in Persian and Arabic provide external perspectives on medieval Indian society, politics, and culture. These travelers, often traders, diplomats, or scholars, documented their observations with varying degrees of accuracy and bias.
Key Travelers and Their Works
- Alberuni (11th century): His Tahkikat-e-Hind (or Tareekh-ul-Hind), written in Persian, offers a scholarly analysis of Indian society, religion, philosophy, and science during Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasions. Alberuni’s interest in medicine, mathematics, and Hindu philosophy makes his work a critical source.
- Marco Polo (13th century): The Venetian traveler’s accounts of South India, particularly the Pandya kingdom, highlight its trade networks and cultural vibrancy.
- Ibn Battuta (14th century): His Rehla, written in Arabic, describes Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s court, its opulence, and administrative complexities. Appointed as Qazi, Ibn Battuta was later sent as an envoy to China after a corruption scandal.
- Abdul Razzaq (15th century): A Persian diplomat, Razzaq’s account of the Vijayanagar Empire details its wealth, administration, and cultural achievements, offering a contrast to northern India’s Muslim-ruled regions.
Significance
Foreign travelers’ accounts provide a comparative perspective, highlighting differences and similarities between Indian and foreign societies. However, their observations are often colored by cultural biases, requiring careful interpretation. For example, Alberuni’s scholarly approach contrasts with Ibn Battuta’s more anecdotal narrative, enriching our understanding of medieval India.
Political Developments: The Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) was a pivotal period in Indian history, marked by the rule of five dynasties: the Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis. Its establishment and decline shaped India’s political and cultural landscape.
The Ghorids and the Establishment of the Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate’s origins lie in the conquests of Muhammad bin Sam of Ghor, who overthrew the Ghaznavid ruler Khusru Malik in 1186. With ambitions to conquer Hindustan, Muhammad defeated Prithviraj Chauhan at the Battle of Thanesar (Tarain) in 1193, establishing the first Muslim dynasty in northern India. After his assassination in 1206, his former slave Qutb-ud-din Aibak assumed control, founding the Mamluk dynasty with Delhi as the capital. Aibak annexed Benaras, Kanauj, Marwa, and Gwalior, and in 1208, defeated Taj-ud-Din Yildiz to become an independent ruler, further conquering Bihar and Bengal.
The Dynasties
- Mamluk Dynasty (1206–1290):
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210): A skilled rider and archer, Aibak laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India, initiating the construction of the Qutb Minar.
- Aram Bakhsh (1210–1211): A brief ruler, he was overthrown by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish.
- Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1211–1236): Iltutmish consolidated the Sultanate, defeating Hindu kings and Mongol threats. He completed the Qutb Minar and established Delhi as an independent sultanate, no longer subordinate to Ghazna.
- Raziyyat-ud-din (1236–1240): Nominated by Iltutmish, Raziyya was the first female ruler of the Sultanate. Her favoritism toward Yaqut, an Abyssinian, led to a rebellion by “The Forty,” Iltutmish’s loyal slaves. Captured by Ikhtiya-ud-din Altunya, she married him to regain the throne but was killed by Bahram.
- Bahram and Ala-ud-din Masud (1240–1246): Weak rulers, they were overthrown by “The Forty,” leading to Nasir-ud-din’s rise.
- Nasir-ud-din (1246–1266): A studious and religious ruler, he repelled Mongol attacks with the help of his minister Ghiyas-ud-din Balban.
- Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266–1287): A former slave, Balban strengthened the Sultanate, suppressing rebellions and Mongol invasions. He built roads to control hill tribes but faced personal tragedy with the death of his son Muhammad Khan. His death led to Kaiqubad’s brief rule, ending the Mamluk dynasty with Jalal-ud-din Firoz’s rise.
- Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320):
- Founded by Jalal-ud-din Firoz, the Khiljis expanded southward under Ala-ud-din Khilji, who conquered Gujarat and parts of the Deccan. His economic reforms, including market controls, strengthened the state. The Alai Darwaza, built in 1311, is a key architectural achievement.
- Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1414):
- Founded by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, this dynasty saw territorial expansion but also instability. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s policies, such as the transfer of the capital to Daulatabad, led to administrative challenges. Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s public works, including canals and mosques, marked his reign.
- Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451):
- A period of decline, the Sayyids ruled a weakened Sultanate amidst regional rebellions. The tomb of Mohammad Shah in Lodi Gardens (1444) is a notable architectural remnant.
- Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526):
- The Afghan Lodis restored some stability, but Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat by Babur at the Battle of Panipat in 1526 ended the Sultanate, ushering in Mughal rule.
Decline of the Delhi Sultanate
The Sultanate’s decline was driven by:
- Internal Conflicts: Rivalries among nobles, such as “The Forty,” and frequent rebellions weakened central authority.
- Economic Strain: Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s policies, like token currency, caused economic instability.
- Regional Powers: The rise of the Vijayanagar Empire and Bahmani Sultanate challenged the Sultanate’s dominance.
- Mughal Invasion: Babur’s victory in 1526 marked the end of the Sultanate.
Architecture under the Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate introduced Indo-Islamic architecture, blending Persian and Indian elements:
- Qutb Minar: Initiated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak and completed by Iltutmish, this minaret features true arches and domes, with muqarnas corbels and Indian floral motifs.
- Alai Darwaza: Built by Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1311, it showcases the earliest true dome in India, with intricate tile work and calligraphy.
- Tomb of Mohammad Shah: This octagonal tomb in Lodi Gardens (1444) incorporates Islamic pointed arches, Hindu chhajjas, and guldastas, influencing Mughal architecture.
- Tomb of Balban: Located in Mehrauli, this is the first known building in India to feature a true arch.
The early rulers were often iconoclastic, destroying Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples and prohibiting anthropomorphic representations in art. However, their fusion of Indian and Islamic styles laid the foundation for Indo-Islamic architecture, which reached its zenith under the Mughals.
Painting under the Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate paintings developed an Indo-Persian style, influenced by Iranian and Jain traditions:
- Style: Borrowed from Islamic painting schools, particularly Iran, but adapted to Indian tastes with bright colors, rows of figures in identical poses, and decorative bands.
- Notable Works:
- Shahnama (15th century): Created under Lodi rule, this manuscript shows similarities with Jain paintings.
- Khamseh by Amir Khusro: A poetic work with illustrations reflecting Indo-Persian synthesis.
- Bostan (Mandu): A painted manuscript showcasing regional styles.
- Ne’mat-nameh (Malwa): Painted in the early 16th century, it blends Turkmen and western Indian styles.
Conclusion
The sources of medieval Indian history—archaeological remains, epigraphic records, numismatic evidence, material artifacts, chronicles, literary works, administrative records, and travelers’ accounts—provide a multifaceted view of the period. Archaeological sites like Khajuraho, Qutb Minar, and Harṣagiri reveal artistic and architectural achievements, while inscriptions and coins offer precise historical data. Chronicles like Rajatarangini and Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi narrate political developments, and literary sources in Persian, Sanskrit, and regional languages highlight cultural and intellectual life. Administrative records and travelers’ accounts, such as those by Alberuni and Ibn Battuta, provide detailed insights into governance and external perspectives. Together, these sources illuminate the complex interplay of regional identities, religious traditions, and political dynamics that shaped medieval India, particularly during the Delhi Sultanate’s transformative rule.
