The Vijayanagar Empire From Origin To Decline

As the Delhi Sultanate declined in the early 14th century, new powers began to rise in South India, most notably the Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate. These two kingdoms would go on to dominate the southern part of India for over 200 years. Despite frequent wars, both kingdoms provided stable governance, maintained law and order, and supported trade, agriculture, and urban growth. Their rulers also became important patrons of art, architecture, and culture. Compared to the political fragmentation in North India, the South saw the emergence of two powerful territorial states.

This era also saw the arrival of the Portuguese, a European naval power. Using their strength at sea, they tried to control maritime trade and dominate important coastal areas.

The Capital City: Hampi (Vijayanagara)

Hampi, the illustrious capital of the Vijayanagar Empire, stands as a symbol of South Indian grandeur, political power, and cultural efflorescence during the 14th to 16th centuries. Situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka, Hampi was more than a mere administrative centre—it was the heart of a dynamic civilization that impressed even the most seasoned foreign visitors.

Geographical and Strategic Location

Hampi was strategically located in a rugged terrain, surrounded by granite hills and boulders which provided natural fortification. The Tungabhadra River added to its defensibility and also ensured a steady water supply, making it a natural choice for the foundation of an imperial capital. Its location at the junction of important trade routes allowed Hampi to flourish as a commercial hub.

Urban Planning and Architecture

Foreign travellers like Domingo Paes and Abdul Razzaq marvelled at Hampi’s sophisticated urban planning. The city was spread across many square kilometres, divided into well-planned sectors for residential, commercial, religious, and military functions. Fortified enclosures, massive walls, and gateways marked the city’s layout, reflecting both grandeur and security.

The royal centre housed palaces, audience halls, stables, and military barracks. The most remarkable among these was the Lotus Mahal, noted for its elegant Indo-Islamic architectural fusion, and the Elephant Stables, which indicated the significance of cavalry in the empire. Water management was another highlight—advanced irrigation systems, aqueducts, canals, and step-wells were used for both domestic and agricultural purposes.

Temples and Religious Institutions

Hampi was one of the most significant temple towns in medieval India. The Virupaksha Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, predated the empire but became a central site of pilgrimage under the Vijayanagar rulers. The temple complex was regularly expanded and lavishly patronised by kings and nobles.

The Vittala Temple, with its iconic stone chariot and musical pillars, is a testament to the architectural and sculptural zenith reached by the Vijayanagar artisans. These temples not only served religious purposes but also acted as centres of economic and social activities, employing hundreds of people and controlling vast tracts of land.

Markets and Economic Life

The city of Hampi had vibrant markets which impressed travellers for their organization and wealth. Paes described the bazaars as being wide and orderly, lined with rows of shops selling precious stones, silk, spices, and horses. Specialised markets existed for different commodities, such as the Malyavanta Bazaar and Krishna Bazaar.

Merchants from across the Indian Ocean world—Arab, Persian, and later Portuguese—frequented the city. Hampi’s urban landscape was interspersed with storage houses, granaries, minting facilities, and customs checkpoints. The trade generated revenue through taxes like marpdayam (transit dues) and shop rents, which sustained the city’s opulence.

Cultural and Cosmopolitan Life

Hampi was not just an economic and religious hub but also a melting pot of cultures. Apart from Hindu temples and mathas, there were also mosques and settlements of foreign traders and diplomats. The city witnessed cultural syncretism, where Sanskrit and Telugu literary production thrived, and music, dance, and drama found royal patronage.

The court of Krishnadevaraya in Hampi became an epicentre of classical Telugu literature with poets like Allasani Peddana, Tenali Ramakrishna, and Nandi Thimmana. The rulers also supported Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit scholars, making Hampi a beacon of multilingual literary achievement.

Decline and Destruction

The city’s flourishing life came to a tragic end after the Battle of Talikota in 1565. The victorious Deccan Sultanates ransacked Hampi, looting and destroying its architectural marvels. Foreign accounts mention that the destruction was so thorough that the city never recovered. Temples were desecrated, markets were burned, and the once-bustling capital turned into ruins almost overnight.

Legacy

Today, Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a silent yet grand reminder of the Vijayanagar Empire’s former glory. Its ruins continue to attract scholars, tourists, and archaeologists from around the world. Though destroyed, Hampi remains one of the most evocative sites of medieval Indian urbanism, imperial power, and cultural zenith.

Origins of Vijayanagar and Its Early Conflict with the Bahmanis

The exact beginnings of the Vijayanagar Empire are debated. However, most scholars agree that Harihara and Bukka, two brothers, were the key founders. Traditional stories claim they were once ministers under the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later served the ruler of Kampili in Karnataka. When Kampili was captured by the Delhi Sultanate, the two brothers were taken to Delhi, converted to Islam, and sent back to Kampili to control a rebellion. However, they switched sides and led the rebellion against the Sultanate.

Many modern scholars question this story. They suggest that Harihara and Bukka were actually part of a group of 75 local leaders (nayaks) who rose against Delhi’s rule. These scholars argue that the brothers belonged to a strong Shaivite (devotees of Lord Shiva) family from Karnataka, not Andhra Pradesh. Regardless of their exact origin, the Vijayanagar rulers built an administration that blended Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada traditions, showing their pan-South Indian identity.

ESTABLISHMENT AND CONSOLIDATION

Geography and the Struggle for Power

Geography played a key role in shaping the political events of South India. The most fought-over regions were the fertile Krishna-Godavari delta, the Kaveri basin, the Tungabhadra doab (area between two rivers), and the Konkan coast. These areas were rich in resources and strategically important.

From the 8th to the 13th century, major powers like the Rashtrakutas and the Pallavas fought for control. Later, during the 14th to 16th centuries, the main rivalry was between the Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate.

The Bahmanis had an advantage through their alliance with the Velamas of Rajakonda in Warangal. This alliance prevented Vijayanagar from expanding northwards, so it moved east, west, and south instead. When this alliance weakened, Vijayanagar took the opportunity to expand further, especially at the expense of the Bahmanis.

Early Phase of Vijayanagar (1336–1509)

This period was marked by continuous wars with the Bahmanis, Reddis of Kondavidu, Velamas of Rajakonda, Telugu-Chodas, and Gajapatis of Orissa. The major points of conflict were the Krishna-Godavari delta, Tungabhadra doab, and Marathwada (especially the Konkan coast).

1336–1422: Frequent wars occurred between Vijayanagar and the Bahmanis. The Telugu-Chodas sided with the Bahmanis, while the Velamas and Reddis supported Vijayanagar. This alliance tilted the balance in Vijayanagar’s favor.
1422–1446: The Bahmanis defeated Vijayanagar in the Raichur doab region, exposing the weaknesses in Vijayanagar’s army. This defeat led the rulers to reorganize their military, recruit skilled Muslim archers, and obtain better horses. These archers were rewarded with land revenues (similar to jagirs). During this time, Vijayanagar also annexed the Kondavidu region.
1465–1509: Conflicts in the Raichur doab continued. Initially, Vijayanagar lost control of important western ports like Goa, Chaul, and Dabhol to the Bahmanis. This disrupted the supply of Arabian horses, which were vital for Vijayanagar’s cavalry. However, Vijayanagar managed to regain ports like Honavar, Bhatkal, Bakanur, and Mangalore, reviving the horse trade and strengthening its army again.

The Gajapatis of Orissa held areas like Kondavidu, Udayagiri, and Masulipatam in the east. Vijayanagar drove them back to the Godavari River, temporarily taking control of these regions. But in 1481, Masulipatam was lost to the Bahmanis. Vijayanagar also faced internal rebellions from local chiefs of Udsavari, Ummattur (near Mysore), and Srirangapatnam.

Main Areas of Conflict Between Vijayanagar and Bahmanis

There were three key regions where the interests of Vijayanagar and the Bahmani Sultanate clashed:

Tungabhadra Doab – This was the fertile area between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers. It had been historically contested due to its wealth.
Krishna-Godavari Delta – This fertile area controlled important ports and sea trade routes.
Marathwada and Konkan Coast – Especially the Konkan region, a narrow strip between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. Goa, the key port in this area, was strategically important.

Wars between Vijayanagar and the Bahmanis were frequent and intense. These conflicts brought military strength to the forefront in both kingdoms. Although often depicted as religious (Hindus vs. Muslims), many alliances and conflicts were actually based on political and territorial interests. For example, Vijayanagar employed Muslim horsemen in their army and initially fought Hindu Hoysalas.

The Orissa Gajapati rulers also invaded parts of Vijayanagar, at which point Vijayanagar even allied with the Bahmanis to resist them. Similarly, the rulers of Warangal supported the Bahmanis against Vijayanagar. This shows that politics often trumped religion in determining alliances.

Still, the religious element could not be ignored. It intensified the violence during wars. Both sides burned cities, destroyed temples and mosques, and sold civilians into slavery, all in the name of religion.

Early Wars and Massacres

The first conflict over the Tungabhadra doab began around 1336 when the Bahmanis captured Raichur, but Harihara recovered it the following year. In 1367, Bukka launched another campaign in alliance with Warangal. He attacked Mudkal Fort, killing nearly all the defenders. In retaliation, the Bahmani Sultan swore to kill 100,000 Hindus. He personally crossed the Tungabhadra River—a first for a Bahmani ruler—and launched an invasion.

Both sides used artillery in this war, an early example of gunpowder weapons in South India. The war ended without a clear victor. Both sides agreed to share the doab and promised not to harm civilians in future wars. However, such promises were rarely kept.

Expansion under Harihara II (1377–1404)

With the Madurai Sultanate gone, Vijayanagar expanded in other directions. The northeast had several small Hindu principalities, and both the Bahmanis and Orissa rulers were interested in this region.

Earlier, the Warangal ruler had helped Hasan Gangu against the Delhi Sultanate. However, later rulers of Warangal became aggressive and seized Kaulas and Golconda from the Bahmanis. Vijayanagar, being busy in the south, couldn’t intervene.

Eventually, the Bahmani Sultan and the ruler of Warangal made peace. Golconda was set as the boundary between their kingdoms, and the Warangal ruler gifted the Bahmani Sultan a jewel-encrusted throne. This alliance between Warangal and the Bahmanis lasted more than 50 years and was a major reason Vijayanagar couldn’t capture the Tungabhadra doab.

Religious and Military Dimensions

Though the rivalry was primarily political and economic, it often had religious undertones:

Vijayanagar claimed to be a protector of Hinduism.
Bahmani Sultans were Muslim rulers.

However, alliances were not strictly based on religion. For example:

Muslim soldiers were employed by Vijayanagar.
Vijayanagar’s early wars were against Hindu Hoysalas.
Later, the Gajapati rulers of Orissa (Hindus) attacked Vijayanagar, prompting the latter to ally with the Bahmani Sultanate.

Nevertheless, religion added bitterness to these wars. Both sides looted towns, destroyed temples and mosques, and enslaved or killed civilians. The wars brought immense suffering to the population in contested regions.

The Golden Age under Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529)

This period marks the peak of Vijayanagar’s power under its greatest ruler, Krishnadeva Raya.

By this time, the Bahmani Sultanate had broken into five smaller kingdoms: Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar, and Golconda. This division gave Vijayanagar a chance to expand.
Krishnadeva Raya captured Kovilkonda and Raichur from Bijapur and seized Gulbarga and Bidar from the Bahmanis.
He also reclaimed Udayagiri, Kondavidu, Nalgonda, Telangana, and Warangal from the Gajapatis.
In 1510, the Portuguese captured Goa and established themselves as a strong maritime power. Their control over Goa gave them a monopoly over the Arabian horse trade, which was critical for all Deccan armies.

Krishnadeva Raya formed friendly ties with the Portuguese. He allowed them to build a fort at Bhatkal and even received support from Portuguese soldiers during his battles, especially against Ismail Adil Khan of Bijapur.

Period of Instability (1529–1542)

After Krishnadeva Raya’s death, Vijayanagar fell into internal turmoil. His brother, Achyut Raya, succeeded him but died in 1542, leading to a war of succession between Achyut’s son and his nephew, Sadasiva Raya. Eventually, Sadasiva became king, but real power was in the hands of Rama Raya, Krishnadeva Raya’s son-in-law.

Rama Raya took steps to modernize the military by including more Muslims in the army and giving them important administrative positions, thereby improving its effectiveness.

Relations with the Portuguese

Under Rama Raya, relations with the Portuguese worsened. In 1542, the Portuguese governor Martin Alfonso de Souza raided and plundered Bhatkal. Later, Rama Raya signed a treaty with his successor Joao de Castro in 1547, securing monopoly rights over the horse trade.

He also tried to reduce Portuguese influence in San Thome, located on the Coromandel coast.

Expansion in the Deep South

By 1512, Vijayanagar had brought most of South India under its control.

Local rulers such as those of Rajagambirarajyam (Tondai Mandalam), the Zamorin of Calicut, and the ruler of Quilon accepted Vijayanagar’s authority.
By 1496, the entire deep south up to Cape Comorin (southern tip of India) came under Vijayanagar, including areas ruled by the Cholas, Cheras, Tanjore, Pudukottai, and Madura.
The Pandya ruler (chief of Tuticorin and Kayattar) was allowed to rule as a subordinate paying tribute.

A unique feature of Vijayanagar’s expansion into Tamil Nadu was that Telugu soldiers settled in remote areas, cultivating the rich black soil. This led to the rise of the Reddis as an important farming group. The nayakas, who were military leaders and governors, also emerged during this time as local intermediaries of power.

The Vijayanagar state was vast and multi-ethnic, comprising Tamils, Kannadas, and Telugus. While Vijayanagar exercised direct control over the Tungabhadra region, in other areas it ruled through nayakas and sectarian groups like the Vaishnavas.

Deccan Muslim States and Political Intrigue

By 1538, the Bahmani Sultanate had officially broken up into five Deccan states: Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar.

In 1542–43, Bijapur and Ahmadnagar came to an understanding: Bijapur could act freely against Vijayanagar, while Ahmadnagar could expand into Bidar. Bijapur’s ruler, Ibrahim Adil Shah, attacked Vijayanagar but was repulsed.

Rama Raya’s foreign policy was full of strategic alliances and betrayals:

He helped Ahmadnagar against Bidar, but later opposed Ahmadnagar when it attacked Gulbarga, a Bijapuri possession.
He tried to set up a collective security system among all Deccan states, where any aggression would be met with joint resistance. However, this alliance fell apart quickly.

In 1560, Ahmadnagar violated this agreement by attacking Bijapur. Rama Raya allied with Golconda to oppose Ahmadnagar. But when Golconda turned against him, Rama Raya responded by attacking Kalyani.

At times, Vijayanagar allied with Bijapur to contain threats from Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
In the end, Rama Raya’s policy was to play the Deccan sultanates against each other to keep Vijayanagar dominant.

However, this risky diplomacy failed when the Deccan Sultanates united.

The Battle of Talikota (1565) and Decline

In 1565, the four Deccan states — Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, and Bidar — joined forces and confronted Vijayanagar at Talikota, near the Krishna River. This battle proved to be disastrous:

Rama Raya was captured and killed.
Vijayanagar was thoroughly sacked and plundered.

Although the kingdom technically continued for another century, it was severely weakened. The Rayas lost political importance, and the empire was reduced to a shadow of its former self.

Administration Of Vijayanagar Empire

local self-governing institutions like the sabha (assembly of Brahmin villages), ur (assembly of non-Brahmin villages), and nadu (territorial assembly) played a significant role in village and regional governance, especially during the Chola period. However, by the later Chola era, the powers of these assemblies had weakened considerably.

Under the Vijayanagar Empire, although these earlier institutions did not entirely vanish, their influence significantly diminished, especially with the emergence of two powerful administrative systems — the nayankara system and the ayagar system.

1. The Nayankara System

The nayankara system was a key feature of Vijayanagar’s political structure. It involved the allocation of land and authority to military chiefs, called nayakas or amaranayakas, who were entrusted with military and administrative responsibilities. However, the exact nature of their role — whether they were simple agents of the state or semi-independent feudal lords — has been debated among historians.

Nature of the Nayakas

Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz, who visited during the reigns of Krishnadeva Raya and Achyut Raya (16th century), described the nayakas as agents of the central government (Rayas), appointed to administer territories and maintain military contingents.
Nayakas made periodic payments to the Rayas, suggesting a system of feudal obligations.
Inscriptions and records like the Mackenzie Manuscripts portray nayakas as regional lords with political ambitions, at times conflicting with the central authority.

Historiographical Views

K.A. Nilakanta Sastri (1946) distinguished between the nayakas before and after the Battle of Talikota (1565). He argued that:
- Before 1565: Nayakas were military chiefs directly dependent on the king.
- After 1565: They operated with semi-independence.
- Later, he modified his view to suggest even before 1565, they held military fiefs in return for service.
In Sources of Indian History, Sastri describes the empire as a military confederacy, where various chiefs cooperated under the leadership of the strongest among them, driven by the growing Islamic military threat.
B.A. Krishnaswami viewed the nayaka system as feudal.
Venkataramanayya, however, disagreed, noting the absence of classic European feudal features like fealty, homage, and sub-infeudation.
D.C. Sircar also rejected the feudal label, considering the system closer to landlordism, where land was granted in exchange for military service.
T.V. Mahalingam and D.C. Sircar characterized the nayakas as military officials holding temporary office (kara) granted by the king.

Structure and Function

The amaranayaka was a military officer granted control over land called amaram (or amaramahali), which provided him with revenue rights in return for maintaining a certain number of troops.
In Tamil Nadu and other parts of the empire, such grants could make up about one-third of the cultivable land.
The responsibilities of nayakas included:
- Making donations to temples,
- Constructing and maintaining tanks,
- Reclaiming wastelands for agriculture,
- Collecting dues (sometimes from temples).

Interestingly, Tamil inscriptions rarely mention nayakas paying dues to the king or his agents, indicating a relatively autonomous financial operation in some areas.

Problem of Nayaka Autonomy

Over time, especially after Krishnadeva Raya, several nayakas asserted independence, forming semi-autonomous nayaka kingdoms. To curb this trend, Vijayanagar rulers:

Strengthened control over coastal trade, especially the horse trade (essential for cavalry).
Paid high prices to monopolize quality horse imports.
Built fortified garrisons with loyal troops to ensure tighter central control.

Thus, nayakas were both pillars of strength and potential rivals to the central Vijayanagar authority.

2. The Ayagar System

The ayagar system evolved as a village-level administrative structure that functioned across the Vijayanagar Empire, especially after the decline of older autonomous institutions like nadu and nattar.

Definition and Spread

Ayagars were village servants or officials, drawn from different families and appointed to perform various administrative and service duties.
The system became particularly prominent in Karnataka and Andhra, and later spread to the Tamil region during the 15th–16th centuries as the power of older assemblies declined.

Composition of Ayagars

Key village functionaries included:

Headmen: Known as reddi, gauda, or maniyam.
Accountants: Called karnam or senabhova.
Watchmen: Known as talaiyari.

They were typically paid in one of two ways:

Land grants (plots within villages), often tax-free (manya).
Direct payments in kind, for special services.

In most cases, these grants were not subject to regular taxes, though exceptions existed. Other essential village service providers were:

Leather workers: Supplied leather bags used in irrigation devices (e.g., kapila or mohta).
Potters, blacksmiths, carpenters: Provided everyday goods and maintenance.
Watermen (niranikkar): Maintained irrigation canals, supervised banking and lending activities.
Temple priests and washermen: Also received land allocations.

Unique Feature

The distinguishing aspect of the ayagar system was that, for the first time, village officials were given specific income allocations from land and sometimes fixed cash payments in return for their services. This created a more structured and institutionalized framework for rural administration, replacing the more community-based systems of earlier times.

In conclusion, the local administration under the Vijayanagar Empire saw a significant transformation from earlier systems of autonomous village governance. The nayankara system centralized military and fiscal authority under military chiefs tied to the king through land grants, but over time, some of these nayakas turned semi-independent. Meanwhile, the ayagar system provided a stable structure for managing village affairs by formally allocating land and income to a range of service-providing officials. These two systems represent Vijayanagar’s attempt to control both military power and local administration, adapting older traditions to meet the demands of a large, diverse empire.

Economy Of The Vijayanagar Empire

The economy of the Vijayanagar Empire (c. 1336–1646 CE) was agrarian in foundation but highly diversified, incorporating extensive trade networks, temple-based financial institutions, and structured systems of land rights and taxation. Drawing from indigenous sources like Amuktamalyada, and foreign accounts such as those by Domingo Paes, Nuniz, and Barbosa, the economic structure of Vijayanagar reflects a complex interweaving of agrarian management, urban development, and trans-regional trade.

Agrarian Production and Land Revenue

Agriculture formed the backbone of the Vijayanagar economy. Rice, both black and white varieties, was the staple food crop, especially abundant in the Coromandel region up to Pulicat. Other significant agricultural products included gram, pulses, black pepper, coconut, and betel nuts.

Land revenue constituted the principal source of state income. The assessment of land revenue varied depending on the fertility and geographic location of land. While the standard rate was typically one-sixteenth (1/16th) of the produce, in fertile or strategically important areas it could be as high as one-fourth (1/4th). Brahmans and temples were granted concessional rates, paying as low as 1/20th to 1/30th of the produce. Revenue was collected both in cash and kind.

Land Tenure and Rights

There were three principal categories of land tenure during the Vijayanagar period:

Amara: These villages formed the largest category, comprising around three-quarters of all villages. The amaranayakas were granted rights over the revenue of these villages, not proprietary rights over the land itself. The term amaramakani, which literally means “one-sixteenth share,” signified that these officers were entitled to a limited portion of the village’s revenue after deductions for Brahmans and forts.
Bhandaravada: These were crown villages, often the smallest in number, the income from which was allocated to the maintenance of Vijayanagar forts.
Manya: These were tax-free villages allotted to Brahmans, temples, and religious institutions (mathas). These could be ekabhoga (granted to individual Brahmans) or collective grants. A notable trend in this period was the increasing prevalence of devadana grants (temple grants), including those given to non-Brahman Saiva Siddhanta and Vaishnava sects.

Professional and Miscellaneous Taxes

In addition to land revenue, the state imposed a variety of professional taxes on occupational groups such as shopkeepers, farm-servants, shepherds, washermen, potters, shoemakers, and musicians. Grazing tax, property tax, and house tax were also commonly levied. Villagers were further expected to contribute towards the maintenance of village-level officials.

Other categories of dues included sthala dayam, maradayam, and manula dayam, all of which were major transit taxes imposed on goods transported across different regions.

Irrigation Investments and Development Rights

A unique feature of agrarian expansion in semi-arid areas was the emergence of a system of revenue-sharing rights for those who invested in irrigation works. Known as dasavanda in Tamil regions and Kattu-Kodage in Andhra and Karnataka, this right entitled the investor—whether an individual or a temple—to a share of the increased agricultural productivity. These rights were both personal and transferable, and a portion of the enhanced income also benefited the cultivators of the area.

Economic Role of Temples

Temples during the Vijayanagar period evolved into major economic institutions, functioning as large landholders, employers, and financiers. Hundreds of villages were granted to deities worshipped in prominent temples. The income from devadana villages sustained ritual functionaries, supported daily offerings, and financed the procurement of ritual materials such as aromatic substances and textiles.

Temples like Tirupati and Srirangam also undertook irrigation projects, channeling state-endowed funds to enhance agrarian productivity. In return, the benefactors received ritual privileges, such as a share in the prasadam (consecrated food). Temples maintained their own irrigation departments, and records mention temples employing as many as 37 servants for their operations.

In financial matters, temples operated like independent banking institutions. They gave loans to individuals and local assemblies, often securing these loans against land revenue. At Srirangam, temple endowments were invested in commercial ventures, including loans to merchant firms in Tiruchirapalli. Trusts managed temple funds for a variety of public and economic purposes, thereby integrating religious and economic life.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade flourished under the Vijayanagar Empire, as recorded by travelers like Krishnadevaraya (in Amuktamalyada), Barbosa, Domingo Paes, and Nuniz. The role of Muslim merchants was pivotal. Barbosa noted that overseas trade was largely monopolized by Muslims, who received royal patronage, including personal guards and accountants for facilitating local trade. In places like Kayal, even the royal monopoly on pearl fisheries was entrusted to Muslim traders.

The horse trade—essential for military power—was controlled by Arabs and later the Portuguese. Horses were imported from Arabia, Syria, and Turkey, arriving mainly at Goa, which supplied horses to both Vijayanagar and Deccan sultanates.

Major imports included:

Horses
Ivory, pearls (from Persian Gulf and Ceylon)
Precious stones (from Pegu)
Velvet (from Mecca)
Silk, brocade, damask, and satin (from China)

Major exports included:

White rice, sugarcane, palm sugar
Iron
Diamonds: Nuniz claimed that Vijayanagar possessed the richest diamond mines in the world, particularly along the Krishna river in Kurnool and Anantapur, spawning an extensive gem-cutting industry in both Vijayanagar and Malabar.

Internal Trade and Urbanism

Internal trade and urbanization were prominent features of the Vijayanagar economy. Contemporary foreign accounts emphasized the well-maintained roads and roadside facilities for travelers. Carts and pack animals facilitated the movement of goods, while riverine transport, particularly on the west-coast backwaters, supported local trade.

Periodic fairs and temple festivals were major trade events. These were managed by trade guilds, under leaders known as pattamswami, and often patronized by local chiefs (gauds or nadu heads). These events became crucial platforms for urban and auxiliary trade.

There were nearly 80 major trade centres documented through inscriptions between the 14th and 16th centuries. These urban centres were categorized as religious, administrative, or commercial towns. Each town housed multiple bazars, often segregated by commodity type and caste affiliations (left-hand and right-hand castes).

Markets catered to both agricultural and non-agricultural products. Temple-related commerce, including trade in consecrated food (prasadam) and sale of ritual services, added another dimension to urban trade.

Urban areas also generated revenue through transit duties, shop and house rent, and trade licenses. Cities like Berwada became associated with specific artisan groups (e.g., Telugu oil-pressers and merchants). The capital city of Vijayanagar itself reflected a high degree of urban sophistication, integrating markets, palaces, temples, and mosques. However, this urban character was devastated post the Battle of Talikota (1565), marking the end of its prosperity.

Society in the Vijayanagar Empire

The social structure of the Vijayanagar Empire, which spanned much of South India from the 14th to 17th centuries, reflected a unique synthesis of traditional Indian social institutions with regionally distinctive elements. The organization of society in this macro-region was marked by three defining characteristics: the secular functions of the Brahmans, the dual division of lower castes, and the territorial segmentation of society. These features distinguished South Indian society from its northern counterparts and contributed to the cohesion and diversity of the Vijayanagar state.

Brahmans and Their Secular Functions

Brahmans in the Vijayanagar period played a dual role, combining religious prestige with considerable secular authority. Unlike in other parts of India where Brahmanical influence was largely confined to priestly functions, in South India, Brahmans often resided in specially designated settlements and exercised direct control over land. Their authority was grounded in their position as both spiritual mediators and as landlords and managers of temple estates.

A significant source of Brahmanical power was their association with Vedic temples, many of which were endowed with entire villages known as devadānas. These endowments gave Brahmans, in their capacity as temple functionaries, economic control and ritual dominance over the local population. As administrators of temple wealth and land, they were key figures in the governance of both religious and agrarian life, enjoying a level of secular influence that extended well beyond the temple walls.

Territorial Segmentation and Regionalized Society

The Vijayanagar Empire governed a territory marked by territorial segmentation, particularly visible in the Tamil region. Here, social groups were not only occupationally distinct but also geographically and ecologically rooted in specific sub-regions. This led to a pattern in which local communities had relatively limited interaction with social groups outside their ecological or territorial zones.

Marriage customs reinforced this regionalism. Cross-cousin and maternal uncle–niece marriages were prevalent, practices that reflect strong kinship ties within localized social units. These customs helped maintain cohesion within regionally bounded groups and minimized the mixing of social identities across wider geographic distances.

Right-hand and Left-hand Castes

One of the most distinctive features of South Indian society under Vijayanagar rule was the dual division of lower castes into right-hand and left-hand designations. This division was not merely religious but also economic and occupational in nature.

The right-hand castes (often associated with Vaishnavism) included communities engaged in agricultural production and the local trade of agrarian goods. These groups, such as the Vellalars, were frequently prosperous peasants and landlords who commanded significant social respect.
The left-hand castes (generally aligned with Shaivism) were involved in mobile artisanal production and long-distance trade in non-agricultural commodities. These included weavers, metalworkers, and other artisan classes who were economically vital but often socially ranked lower than their agrarian counterparts.

This dual caste system was deeply embedded in the socio-political structure of urban and rural settlements, often leading to tensions, competitions, and occasional conflicts over public rituals and access to temple honours.

The Central Role of the Peasantry

The peasantry formed the bedrock of the Vijayanagar social order. Agricultural production was the primary basis of economic life, and the higher strata of the peasantry were held in high regard. Tamil poetic traditions such as the sātakams idealized the sat-śūdras—pure, virtuous peasants who possessed ritual purity and were recognized with respectable secular ranks.

These peasants were not merely passive cultivators; they were integrated into the political and religious life of their localities. Their participation in temple patronage, local assemblies, and festivals indicates their embeddedness in the broader framework of governance and cultural production.

Temples were not only places of worship but also functioned as institutions that structured social space. Participation in temple rituals often reflected and reinforced social hierarchies, as different castes were assigned distinct roles and privileges in worship.

The lineage structure of South Indian kingship was often expressed through shared devotion to a lineage tutelary deity, further cementing ties between political authority and religious identity. In this context, non-Brahman priests associated with local shrines—especially to folk deities like Amman—played an important role. In certain cases, these priests participated in the management of larger Saiva and Vaishnava temples, which were otherwise dominated by Brahmanical authority.

The mathas (monastic centres and sectarian institutions) served as important nodes of religious life. These institutions often included both Brahman and non-Brahman members, particularly in contexts where sectarian identity (e.g., Shaiva or Vaishnava) played a more significant role than varna-based distinctions. This reflects a degree of social fluidity within religious institutions, even amid a stratified social order.

The society of the Vijayanagar Empire was a complex and regionally nuanced structure that combined caste hierarchies with occupational and territorial distinctions. It was shaped by the dominant role of the Brahmans, the agrarian foundation of the social system, and the unique dual division of the lower castes. The interweaving of religious institutions, kinship patterns, and economic roles created a rich social tapestry that both reflected and reinforced the empire’s political stability and cultural dynamism. Despite the deeply entrenched hierarchies, there were also spaces of interaction and shared ritual life that blurred strict caste boundaries, particularly within the temple and sectarian settings.

Factors Responsible for the Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire

The decline of the Vijayanagara Empire was the result of a combination of political, military, economic, and social factors that gradually weakened its foundations. The major causes can be analysed under the following heads:

1. Weakness of the Central Government

One of the core structural weaknesses of the Vijayanagara Empire was the lack of a strong and centralised administration. Considerable autonomy was granted to provincial governors, who were not only responsible for maintaining their own military forces but were also authorised to mint and circulate their own coins. Over time, this decentralisation undermined the authority of the central government and encouraged regional ambitions, contributing to political fragmentation and eventual decline.

2. Incompetent Successors after Krishnadeva Raya

The death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529 marked a turning point in the history of the empire. While he had been an exceptional and dynamic ruler, his successors failed to uphold his legacy. Most of them were either weak or incapable of managing the vast and diverse empire. Their inability to control provincial chieftains and defend the empire against external threats hastened the empire’s downfall.

3. Decadence and Luxurious Lifestyle

Vijayanagara was a wealthy empire, with prosperity visible in its art, architecture, and urban life. However, this abundance led to growing materialism and decadence. Contemporary foreign travellers and sources speak of widespread indulgence, including the prevalence of prostitution, particularly in rest houses. Such excesses eroded the moral and social fabric of the society and weakened its internal resilience.

4. Dynastic Conflicts and Court Conspiracies

The empire was ruled by four successive dynasties — the Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu — each of which came to power through internal power struggles. These dynastic changes often led to conspiracies and court intrigues, as rival claimants vied for the throne. The frequent disruptions in succession weakened administrative stability and fostered factionalism within the ruling elite.

5. Disloyalty and Fragmentation in the Military

The Vijayanagara rulers heavily depended on provincial governors for military resources. As a result, many troops owed primary allegiance to their local lords rather than to the emperor himself. This decentralised military structure resulted in poor coordination, lack of discipline, and internal disunity during times of war — particularly when cohesive action was most needed.

6. Prolonged Conflict with the Bahmani Successor States

From its inception, Vijayanagara was engaged in constant warfare with the Bahmani Sultanate and, later, its successor states in the Deccan. These prolonged conflicts drained the empire’s economic and military resources. Over time, the inability to maintain a balance of power with the Deccan sultanates weakened Vijayanagara’s regional dominance.

7. The Battle of Talikota (1565)

The decisive blow came in 1565 during the Battle of Talikota, a watershed event in South Indian history. After Krishnadeva Raya’s death, his brother Achyuta Deva Raya and later Sadashiva Raya ascended the throne. However, real power was exercised by the ambitious prime minister Rama Raya, who sought to expand the empire aggressively. His repeated incursions and high-handed treatment of the Muslim rulers of the Deccan provoked a powerful alliance among the Sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, and Bidar.

In the Battle of Talikota, the Vijayanagara forces suffered a crushing defeat. Rama Raya was captured and executed on the battlefield. The capital city of Vijayanagara was plundered and reduced to ruins. This defeat marked the virtual end of the empire’s power and prestige, and although remnants of the Aravidu dynasty continued to rule from Penukonda and later Chandragiri, the empire never regained its former glory.

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📚 Standard Secondary Sources on the Vijayanagara Empire

1. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri

Title: A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar
Why Important: This is the foundational work on South Indian history. Sastri provides a detailed narrative of the rise, administration, culture, and fall of the Vijayanagara Empire based on inscriptions, foreign accounts, and epigraphic evidence.

2. Sanjay Subrahmanyam

Title: Peninsular India, 1500–1700 (in The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. 1)
Why Important: Subrahmanyam provides an economic and political analysis of peninsular India during the Vijayanagara period with a focus on trade networks, the role of coastal cities, and the interaction with European powers.

3. Burton Stein

Title: Vijayanagara and Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India
Why Important: Stein introduces the concept of the segmentary state to understand the Vijayanagara polity. His works focus on social structure, temple economy, and state-society relations.

4. Phillip B. Wagoner

Title: Tidings of the King: A Translation and Ethnohistorical Analysis of the Rayavacakamu
Why Important: Wagoner provides insights into court culture and Indo-Islamic interactions under the Vijayanagara Empire, based on a courtly Telugu text.

5. Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam

Title: Symbols of Substance: Court and State in Nayaka-period Tamil Nadu
Why Important: Though focused on the Nayaka successor states, this work provides a critical understanding of the legacy and political culture of the Vijayanagara Empire.

6. George Michell

Title: Architecture and Art of Southern India: Vijayanagara and the Successor States
Why Important: Michell is a leading authority on Vijayanagara architecture. His works include detailed documentation of the Hampi ruins, temples, and urban planning.

7. Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (translated by Robert Sewell)

Title: A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): A Contribution to the History of India
Why Important: While this includes primary accounts, Sewell’s commentary and context make it a valuable secondary-cum-primary source. It covers the empire at its zenith under Krishnadeva Raya.

8. Krishna Rao B. Surya

Title: History of the Vijayanagara Empire
Why Important: Offers a detailed chronological and administrative history, frequently cited in South Indian historiography.

🏛️ For Thematic Studies (Art, Religion, Trade):

R. Champakalakshmi – Trade, Ideology and Urbanization: South India 300 BC to AD 1300 (contextualises pre-Vijayanagara developments)
Anna L. Dallapiccola & George Michell – Vijayanagara: City and Empire (focus on art, iconography, and sacred geography)

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